Division 


1)  S 907 
.G85 


Section 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/coreahermitnatio00grif_7 


IV ora's  by  Wm.  Elliot  Griffis 


THE  MIKADOS  EMPIRE 

JAPANESE  FAIRY  WORLD 

COREA,  THE  HERMIT  NATION 

MATTHEW  CALBRAITH  PERRY 
THE  LILY  AMONG  THORNS 


JAPAN : 

HONDA,  THE  SAMURAI 

SIR  WILLIAM  JOHNSON 
IN  HISTORY,  FOLK-LORE,  AND  ART 
BRAVE  LITTLE  HOLLAND 

THE  RELIGIONS  OF  JAPAN 

TOWNSEND  HARRIS 


CITY  IN  COREA. 


OR 


The  Hermit  Nation 


I.— ANCIENT  AND  MEDIAEVAL  HISTORY 

II.— POLITICAL  AND  SOCIAL  COREA 

III.— MODERN  AND  RECENT  HISTORY 


by  y 

WILLIAM  ELLIOT  GRIFFIS 

FORMERLY  OF  THE  IMPERIAL  UNIVERSITY  OF  TOKIO,  JAPAN 
AUTHOR  OF  “THE  MIKADO’S  EMPIRE” 


NINTH  EDITION,  REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 


NEW  YORK 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER’S  SONS 
1911 


Copyright,  1882,  1888,  1897.  1904,  1907,  1911 
By  CHARLES  SCRIBNER’S  SONS 


TO 

ALL  COREAN  PATRIOTS: 

WHO  SEEK 

BT  THE  AID  OF  SCIENCE,  TRUTH,  AND  PURE  RELIGION, 

TO  ENLIGHTEN 

THEMSELVES  AND  THEIR  FELLOW-COUNTRYMEN, 

TO  RID 

THEIR  LAND  OF  SUPERSTITION,  BIGOTRY,  DESPOTISM,  AND 
PRIESTCRAFT— BOTH  NATIVE  AND  FOREIGN — 

AND  TO  PRESERVE 

THE  INTEGRITY,  INDEPENDENCE,  AND  HONOR,  OF  THEIR  COUNTRY 

THIS  UNWORTHY  8KETCH 
OF 

THEIR  PAST  HISTORY  AND  PRESENT  CONDITION 


IS  DEDICATED. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  NINTH  EDITION. 


The  year  1910  saw  the  Land  of  the  Plum  Blossom  and  the 
Islands  of  the  Cherry  Blooms  united.  In  this  ninth  edition  of  a 
work  which  for  nearly  thirty  years  has  been  a useful  hand-book 
of  information — having,  by  their  own  unsought  confession,  in- 
spired not  a few  men  and  women  to  become  devoted  friends  and 
teachers  of  the  Corean  people — I have  made  some  corrections  and 
added  a final  chapter,  “Cho-sen:  A Province  of  Japan.”  Be- 
sides outlining  in  brief  the  striking  events  from  1907  to  1911,  I 
have  analyzed  the  causes  of  the  extinction  of  Corean  sovereignty, 
aiming  in  this  to  be  a disinterested  interpreter  rather  than  a mere 
annalist. 

Although  the  sovereignty  of  Corea,  first  recognized  and  made 
known  to  the  world  by  the  Japanese  in  their  treaty  of  1876,  has 
been,  through  the  logic  of  events,  destroyed,  I doubt  not  that  the 
hopes  of  twelve  millions  of  people  will  be  increasingly  fulfilled 
under  the  new  arrangement.  Not  in  haste,  but  only  after  long 
compulsion,  did  the  statesmen  of  Japan  assume  a responsibility 
that  may  test  to  the  full  their  abilities  and  those  of  their  successors. 
The  severe  criticisms,  in  Japan  itself,  of  the  policy  of  the  Tokio 
government  bear  witness  to  the  sensitiveness  of  the  national  con- 
science in  regard  to  the  treatment  of  their  colonies.  In  this  re- 
spect, as  in  so  many  other  points  of  public  ethics,  the  Japanese 
are  ranging  themselves  abreast  with  the  leading  nations  that  are 
making  a world-conscience. 

In  sending  forth  what  may  be  the  final  edition  of  a work,  with 
the  title  of  which  time  has  had  its  revenges,  while  the  contents  are 
still  of  worth,  the  author  thanks  heartily  all  who,  from  1S76,  when 
the  work  was  planned,  until  the  present  time,  have  assisted  in 
making  this  book  valuable  to  humanity. 

W.  E.  G. 

Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  June  27,  1911. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  EIGHTH  EDITION. 


When  in  October,  1882,  the  publishers  of  “ Corea  the  Hermit 
Nation”  presented  this  work  to  the  public  of  English-speaking 
nations,  they  wrote : 

“ Corea  stands  in  much  the  same  relation  to  the  traveller  that 
the  region  of  the  pole  does  to  the  explorer,  and  menaces  with  the 
same  penalty  the  too  inquisitive  tourist  who  ventures  to  penetrate 
its  inhospitable  borders.” 

For  twenty-four  years,  this  book,  besides  enjoying  popular 
favor,  has  been  made  good  use  of  by  writers  and  students,  in 
Europe  and  America,  and  has  served  even  in  Corea  itself  as  the 
first  book  of  general  information  to  be  read  by  missionaries  and 
other  new  comers.  In  this  eighth  edition,  I have  added  to  the 
original  text,  ending  with  Chapter  XLVIII  (September,  1882),  five 
fresh  chapters : on  The  Economic  Condition  of  Corea ; Interna- 
tional Politics  : Chinese  and  Japanese ; The  War  of  1894 : Corea  an 
Empire ; Japan  and  Russia  in  Conflict ; and  Corea  a Japanese  Pro- 
tectorate, bringing  the  history  down  to  the  late  autumn  of  1906. 

Within  the  brief  period  of  time  treated  in  these  new  chapters, 
the  centre  of  the  world’s  politics  has  shifted  from  the  Atlantic  and 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  waters  surrounding  Corea,  the  strange 
anomaly  of  dual  sovereignty  over  the  peninsular  state  has  been 
eliminated,  and  the  military  reputation  of  China  ruined,  and  that 
of  Russia  compromised.  The  rise  of  Japan,  within  half  a century 
of  immediate  contact  with  the  West,  to  the  position  of  a modern 
state,  able  first  to  humiliate  China  and  then  to  grapple  success- 
fully with  Russia,  has  vitally  affected  Corea,  on  behalf  of  whose 
independence  Japan  a second  time  went  to  war  with  a Power 
vastly  greater  in  natural  resources  than  herself.  In  this  period 

vii 


via 


PREFACE  TO  THE  EIGHTH  EDITION. 


also,  the  United  States  of  America  lias  become  one  of  the  great 
Powers  interested  in  the  politics  of  Asia,  and  with  which  the 
would-be  conquerors  of  Asiatic  peoples  must  reckon. 

The  present  or  eighth  edition  shows  in  both  text  and  map,  not 
only  the  swift,  logical  results  both  of  Japan's  military  and  naval 
successes  in  Manchuria  and  on  the  sea  of  Japan  and  of  her  signal 
diplomatic  victory  at  Portsmouth,  but  more.  It  makes  clear  the 
reasons  why  Corea,  as  to  her  foreign  relations,  has  lost  her  sov- 
ereignty. 

The  penalty  laid  upon  the  leaders  of  the  peninsular  kingdom 
for  making  intrigue  instead  of  education  their  work,  and  class  in- 
terests instead  of  national  welfare  their  aim,  is  also  shown  to  be 
pronounced — less  by  the  writer  than  by  the  events  themselves — in 
the  final  failure  of  intriguing  Yaug-banism,  in  May,  1906.  The 
Japanese,  in  the  administration  of  Corea,  are  like  the  other  pro- 
tecting nations,  British,  American,  French,  German,  now  on  a 
moral  trial  before  the  world. 

In  again  sending  forth  a work  that  has  been  so  heartily  wel- 
comed, I reiterate  gladly  my  great  obligations  to  the  scholars, 
native  and  foreign,  who  have  so  generously  aided  me  by  their  con- 
versation, correspondence,  criticism,  and  publications,  and  the 
members  of  the  Korean  Branch  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  who 
have  honored  me  with  membership  in  their  honorable  body.  My 
special  obligations  are  due  to  our  late  American  Minister,  H.  K. 
Allen,  for  printed  documents  and  illustrative  matter ; to  Professor 
Ilomer  B.  Ilulbert,  Editor  of  The  Korea  Review , from  the  pages 
of  which  I have  drawn  liberally,  and  to  the  Editor  of  The  Japan 
Mail , the  columns  of  which  are  rich  in  correspondence  from 
Corea.  I would  call  attention  also  to  the  additions  made  upon 
the  map  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

I beg  again  the  indulgence  of  my  readers,  especially  of  those 
who  by  long  residence  upon  the  soil,  while  so  thoroughly  able  to 
criticize,  have  been  so  profuse  in  their  expression  of  appreciation. 
From  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  have  come  these  grati- 
fying tokens,  and  to  them  as  well  as  to  my  publishers,  I make 
glad  acknowledgments  in  sending  forth  this  eighth  edition. 

W.  E.  G. 

Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  December  12,  1906. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION". 


In  the  year  1871,  while  living  at  Fukui,  in  the  province  of 
Echizen,  Japan,  I spent  a few  days  at  Tsuruga  and  Mikuni,  by  the 
sea  which  separates  Japan  and  Corea.  Like  “ the  Saxon  shore”  of 
early  Britain,  the  coast  of  Echizen  had  been  in  primeval  times 
the  landing-place  of  rovers,  immigrants,  and  adventurers  from  the 
continental  shore  opposite.  Here,  at  Tsuruga,  Corean  envoys  had 
landed  on  their  way  to  the  mikado’s  court.  In  the  temple  near  by 
were  shrines  dedicated  to  the  Corean  Prince  of  Mimana,  and  to 
Jingu  Kogo,  Ojin,  and  Takenouchi,  whose  names  in  Japanese  tra- 
ditions are  associated  with  “The  Treasure-land  of  the  West.” 
Across  the  bay  hung  a sweet-toned  bell,  said  to  have  been  cast  in 
Corea  in  a.d.  647  ; in  which  tradition — untested  by  chemistry — 
declared  there  was  much  gold.  Among  the  hills  not  far  away, 
nestled  the  little  village  of  Awotabi  (Green  Nook),  settled  centuries 
ago  by  paper-makers,  and  visited  a millenium  ago  by  tribute- 
bearers,  from  the  neighboring  peninsula  ; and  famous  for  produ- 
cing the  crinkled  paper  on  which  the  diplomatic  correspondence 
between  the  two  nations  was  written.  Some  of  the  first  families  in 
Echizen  were  proud  of  their  descent  from  Cho-sen,  while  in  the 
villages,  where  dwelt  the  Eta,  or  social  outcasts,  I beheld  the  de- 
scendants of  Corean  prisoners  of  war.  Everywhere  the  finger  of 
tradition  pointed  westward  across  the  waters  to  the  Asian  main- 
land, and  the  whole  region  was  eloquent  of  “kin  beyond  sea.” 
Birds  and  animals,  fruits  and  falcons,  vegetables  and  trees,  farmers' 
implements  and  the  potter's  wheel,  names  in  geography  and  thing* 


X 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


in  the  arts,  and  doctrines  and  systems  in  religion  were  in  some  way 
connected  with  Corea. 

The  thought  often  came  to  me  as  I walked  within  the  moss- 
grown  feudal  castle  walls — old  in  story,  but  then  newly  given  up 
to  schools  of  Western  science  and  languages — why  should  Corea  be 
sealed  and  mysterious,  when  Japan,  once  a hermit,  had  opened  her 
doors  and  come  out  into  the  world’s  market-place  ? When  would 
Corea’s  awakening  come?  As  one  diamond  cuts  another,  why 
should  not  Cho-ka  (Japan)  open  Clio-sen  (Corea)  ? 

Turning  with  delight  and  fascination  to  the  study  of  Japanese 
history  and  antiquities,  I found  much  that  reflected  light  upon  the 
neighbor  country.  On  my  return  home,  I continued  to  search  for 
materials  for  the  story  of  the  last  of  the  hermit  nations.  No  mas- 
ter of  research  in  China  or  Japan  having  attempted  the  task,  from 
what  Locke  calls  “ the  roundabout  view,”  I have  essayed  it,  with 
no  claim  to  originality  or  profound  research,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
general  reader,  to  whom  Corea  “ suggests,”  as  an  American  lady 
said,  “no  more  than  a sea-shell.”  Many  ask  “What’s  in  Corea?” 
and  “Is  Corea  of  any  importance  in  the  history  of  the  world?  ” 

My  purpose  in  this  work  is  to  give  an  outline  of  the  history  of 
the  Land  of  Morning  Calm — as  the  natives  call  their  country  -from 
before  the  Christian  era  to  the  present  year.  As  “ an  honest  tale 
speeds  best,  being  plainly  told,”  I have  made  no  attempt  to  em- 
bellish the  narrative,  though  I have  sought  information  from 
sources  from  within  and  without  Corea,  in  maps  and  charts,  coins 
and  pottery,  the  language  and  art,  notes  and  narratives  of  eye-wit- 
nesses, pencil-sketches,  paintings  and  photographs,  the  standard 
histories  of  Japan  and  China,  the  testimony  of  sailor  and  diploma- 
tist, missionary  and  castaway,  and  the  digested  knowledge  of  critical 
scholars.  I have  attempted  nothing  more  than  a historical  outline 
of  the  nation  and  a glimpse  at  the  political  and  social  life  of  the 
people.  For  lack  of  space,  the  original  manuscript  of  “ Recent  and 
Modem  History,”  part  HI.,  has  been  greatly  abridged,  and  many 
topics  of  interest  have  been  left  untouched. 

The  bulk  of  the  text  was  written  between  the  years  1877  and 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


XI 


1880 ; since  which  time  the  literature  of  the  subject  has  been  en- 
riched by  Boss’s  “Corea”  and  “ Corean  Primer,”  besides  the  Gram- 
mar and  Dictionary  of  the  Corean  language  made  by  the  French 
missionaries.  With  these  linguistic  helps  I have  been  able  to  get 
access  to  the  language,  and  thus  clear  up  doubtful  points  and  ob- 
tain much  needed  data.  I have  borrowed  largely  from  Dallet’s 
“ Histoire  d’Eglise  de  Coree,”  especially  in  the  chapters  devoted  to 
Folk-lore,  Social  Life,  and  Christianity.  In  the  Bibliography  fol- 
lowing the  Preface  is  a list  of  works  to  which  I have  been  more 
or  less  indebted. 

Many  friends  have  assisted  me  with  correspondence,  advice,  or 
help  in  translation,  among  whom  I must  first  thank  my  former  stu- 
dents, Hascgawa,  Hiraii,  Haraguchi,  Matsui,  and  Imadatte,  and  my 
newer  Japanese  friends,  Oligimi  and  Kimura,  while  others,  alas  ! 
will  never  in  this  world  see  my  record  of  acknowledgment — K. 
Yaye'  and  Egi  Takato — whose  interest  was  manifested  not  only  in 
discussion  of  mooted  points,  but  by  search  among  the  book-shops 
in  Kioto  and  Tokio,  w'hich  put  much  valuable  standard  matter  in  my 
hands.  I also  thank  Mr.  Charles  Lanman,  Secretary  of  the  Legation 
of  Japan  in  Washington,  for  four  ferrotypes  taken  in  Seoul  in  1878 
by  members  of  the  Japanese  embassy  ; Mr.  D.  R.  Clark,  of  the 
United  States  Transit  of  Yenus  Survey,  for  four  photographs  of 
the  Corean  villages  in  Russian  Manchuria  ; Mr.  R.  Ideura,  of  Tokio, 
for  a set  of  photographs  of  Kang-wa  and  vicinity,  taken  in  1876, 
and  Mr.  Ozawa  Nankoku,  for  sketches  of  Corean  articles  in  Japanese 
museums.  To  Lieutenant  Wadhams,  of  the  United  States  Navy, 
for  the  use  of  charts  and  maps  made  by  himself  while  in  Corea  in 
1871,  and  for  photographs  of  flags  and  other  trophies,  now  at 
Annapolis,  captured  in  the  Han  forts  ; to  Fleet- Surgeon  H.  O.  Mayo, 
and  other  officers  of  the  United  States  Navy,  for  valuable  informa- 
tion, I hereby  express  my  grateful  appreciation  of  kindness  shown. 
I would  that  Admiral  John  Rodgers,  Commodore  H.  C.  Blake,  and 
Minister  F.  F.  Low  were  living  to  receive  my  thanks  for  their 
courtesies  personally  shown  me,  even  though,  in  attempting  to 
write  history,  I have  made  criticisms  also.  To  Lieutenant  N.  Y. 
Yanagi,  of  the  Hyrographic  Bureau,  of  the  Japanese  Navy,  for  a 


Xll 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


set  of  charts  of  the  coast  of  Corea  ; to  Mr.  Metcalfe,  of  Milwaukee, 
for  photographs  Of  Coreans ; to  Miss  Marshall,  of  New  York,  for 
making  colored  copies  of  the  battle-flags  captured  by  our  naval 
battalion  in  1871,  and  for  the  many  favors  of  correspondents — in  St. 
Petersburg,  Mr.  Hoffman  Atkinson  ; in  Peking,  Jugoi  Arinori 
Mori ; in  Tokio,  Dr.  D.  B.  McCartee,  Hon.  David  Murray,  Rev. 
J.  L.  Amerman,  and  others  whose  names  I need  not  mention.  To 
Gen.  George  W.  McCullum,  Vice-President,  and  to  Mr.  Leopold  Lin- 
dau,  Librarian,  of  the  American  Geographical  Society,  I return  my 
warmest  thanks  ; as  well  as  to  my  dear  wife  and  helpmeet,  for  her 
aid  in  copying,  proof-reading,  suggestions,  and  criticism  during  the 
progress  of  the  work. 

In  one  respect,  the  presentation  of  such  a subject  by  a compiler, 
while  shorn  of  the  fascinating  element  of  personal  experience,  has  an 
advantage  even  over  the  narrator  who  describes  a country  through 
which  he  has  travelled.  With  the  various  reports  of  many  wit- 
nesses, in  many  times  and  places,  before  him,  he  views  the  whole 
subject  and  reduces  the  many  impressions  of  detail  to  unity,  cor- 
recting one  by  the  other.  Travellers  usually  see  but  a portion  of 
the  country  at  one  time.  The  compiler,  if  able  even  in  part  to  con- 
trol his  authorities,  and  if  anything  more  than  a tyro  in  the  art 
of  literary  appraisement,  may  be  able  to  furnish  a hand-book  of  in- 
formation more  valuable  to  the  general  reader. 

In  the  use  of  my  authorities  I have  given  heed  to  Bacon’s  ad- 
vice— tasting  some,  chewing  others,  and  swallowing  few.  In  ancient 
history,  original  authorities  have  been  sought,  and  for  the  story  of 
modern  life,  only  the  reports  of  careful  eye-witnesses  have  been  set 
down  as  facts  ; while  opinions  and  judgments  of  alien  occidentals 
concerning  Corean  social  life  are  rarely  borrowed  without  due 
flavoring  of  critical  salt. 

Corean  and  Japanese  life,  customs,  beliefs,  and  history  are  often 
reflections  one  of  the  other.  Much  of  what  is  reported  from  Corea, 
which  the  eye-witnesses  themselves  do  not  appear  to  understand, 
is  perfectly  clear  to  one  familiar  with  Japanese  life  and  history. 
China,  Corea,  and  Japan  are  as  links  in  the  same  chain  of  civil- 
ization Corea,  like  Cyprus  between  Egypt  and  Greece,  will  yet 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


Xlll 


supply  many  missing  details  to  the  comparative  student  of  language, 
art,  science,  the  development  of  civilization,  and  the  distribution  ol 
life  on  the  globe. 

Some  future  writer,  with  more  ability  and  space  at  command 
than  the  undersigned,  may  discuss  the  question  as  to  how  far  the 
opening  of  Corea  to  the  commerce  of  the  world  has  been  the  result 
of  internal  forces  ; the  scholar,  by  his  original  research,  may  prepare 
the  materials  for  a worthy  history  of  Corea  during  the  two  or  three 
thousand  years  of  her  history  ; the  geologist  or  miner  may  deter- 
mine the  question  as  to  how  far  the  metallic  wealth  of  Corea  will 
affect  the  monetary  equilibrium  of  the  world.  The  missionary  has 
yet  to  prove  the  full  power  of  Christianity  upon  the  people — and 
before  Corean  paganism,  any  form  of  the  religion  of  Jesus,  Roman, 
Greek  or  Reformed,  should  be  welcomed  ; while  to  the  linguist,  the 
man  of  science,  and  the  political  economist,  the  new  country 
opened  by  American  diplomacy  presents  problems  of  profound  in- 
terest. 

W.  E.  G. 

Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  October  2,  1888. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


The  following  is  a list  of  books  and  papers  containing  information  about 
Corea.  Those  of  primary  value  to  which  the  compiler  of  this  work  is  specially 
indebted  are  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*)  ; those  to  which  slight  obligation,  if 
any,  is  acknowledged  with  a double  asterisk  ; and  those  which  he  has  not 
consulted,  with  a dagger  (f).  See  also  under  Tiie  Cokean  Language  and 
Cartography,  in  the  Appendix. 

* History  of  the  Eastern  Barbarians.  “ Eook  cxv.  contains  a sketch  of  the 

tribes  and  nations  occupying  the  northeastern  seaboard  of  China,  with  the 
territory  now  known  as  Manchuria  and  Corea.”  This  extract  from  a 
History  of  the  Later  Han  Dynasty  (25-220  A.D.),  by  a Chinese  scholar  of 
the  fifth  century,  has  been  translated  into  English  by  Mr.  Alexander 
Wylie,  and  printed  in  the  Revue  de  l’Extrcme  Orient,  No.  1,  1882.  Du 
Halde  and  De  Mailla,  in  French,  and  Ross,  in  English,  have  also  given 
the  substance  of  the  Chinese  writer’s  work,  which  also  furnishes  the  basis 
of  Japanese  accounts  of  Corean  history  previous  to  the  fourth  century, 
f The  Subjugation  of  Cliaou-seen,  by  A.  Wylie.  (Atti  del  IV.  Cong.  int.  degli 
Orient,  ii. , pp.  309-315,  1881.)  This  fragment  is  a translation  of  the  95th 
book  of  the  History  of  the  Former  Han  Dynasty  of  China. 

* Empire  de  la  Chine  et  la  Tartarie  Chinoise,  par  P.  du  Halde. 

* The  Kojiki  and  Nihongi,  written  in  Japan  during  the  eighth  century, 

throws  much  light  on  the  early  history  of  Corea. 

* Wakan-San-sai  Dzuye.  Article  on  Cho-sen  in  this  great  Japanese  Encyclo- 

paedia. 

f Tong-Kuk  Tong-Kan  (General  View  of  the  Eastern  Kingdom),  a native  Co- 
rean history  written  in  Chinese. 

* Zenrin  Koku  Hoki  (Precious  Jewels  from  a Neighboring  Country),  by 

Shiuho.  Japan,  1586. 

‘Corea,  its  History,  Manners,  and  Customs,  Dy  John  Ross.  1vol.,  pp.  404.  Il- 
lustrations and  maps.  Paisley,  1880. 

‘The  Chinese  Reader’s  Manual,  by  W.  Fred.  Mayers.  1 vol.,  pp.  440.  Sliang- 
liae,  1874.  An  invaluable  epitome  of  Chinese  history,  biography,  chro- 
nology, bibliography,  and  whatever  is  of  interest  to  the  student  of 
Chinese  literature. 

* K6-cho  Rekidai  Enkaku  Zukai.  Historical  Periods  and  Changes  of  the 

Japanese  Empire,  with  maps  and  notes,  by  Otsuki  Toyo. 


XVI 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


’ * San  Koku  Tsu-ran  To-setsu.  Mirror  of  the  Three  [Tributary]  Kingdoms, 
Chb-sen,  Itiu  kiu,  and  Yezo,  by  Rin  Sliihei,  1785.  This  work,  with  its 
maps,  was  translated  into  French  by  J.  Klaproth,  and  published  in  Paris, 
1832.  1 vol.  8vo,  pp.  288,  of  which  pp.  158  relate  to  Cho-sen.  Digested 

also  in  Siebold’s  Archiv. 

**  Archiv  zur  Bescriebung  von  Japan,  by  Franz  von  Siebold.  This  colossal 
work  contains  much  matter  in  text  and  illustrations  relating  to  Corea,  and 
the  digest  of  several  Japanese  books,  in  the  part  entitled  Naehricliten 
uber  Korai,  Japan’s  Beziige  mit  der  Koraischen  Halbinsel  und  mit  Seliina. 

**  Corea  und  dessen  Einfluss  auf  die  Bevolkerung  Japans.  Zeit.  fur  Ethnol- 
ogic, Zitzungbericlit  VIII.  p.  78,  1876.  P.  Kempermaun. 

**  O Dai  Ichi  Ran.  This  work,  containing  the  annals  of  the  emperors  of  Ja- 
pan, is  a bird’s-eye  view  of  the  principal  events  in  Japanese  history,  written 
in  the  style  of  an  almanac,  which  Titsingh  copied  down  from  translations 
made  by  Japanese  who  spoke  Dutch.  Klaproth  revised  and  corrected 
Titsingh ’s  work,  and  published  his  own  version  in  1834.  Paris  and  Lon- 
don, 8vo,  pp.  460.  This  work  contains  many  references  to  Corea  and  the 
relations  of  the  two  countries,  transcribed  from  the  older  history. 

**  Tableaux  Historiques  de  l’Asie,  depuis  la  monarchie  de  Cyrus  jusque  nos 
jours,  accompagnes  de  recherches  historiques  et  ethnographiques,  etc. 
Par  J.  Klaproth,  Paris,  1826.  Avec  un  atlas  in  folio.  This  manual  of 
the  political  geography  of  Asia  is  very  useful,  but  not  too  accurate. 

f A Heap  of  Jewels  in  a Sea  of  Learning  (Gei  Kai  Shu  Jin  ; Jap.  pron.).  A 
chapter  from  this  Chinese  book  treats  of  Corea. 

f Cho-sen  Hitsu  Go-shin.  A collection  of  conversations  with  the  pen,  with  a 
Corean  who  could  not  speak  Japanese.  By  Ishikawa  Rokuroku  Sanjin, 
Yedo. 

* The  Classical  Poetry  of  the  Japanese.  By  Basil  Hall  Chamberlain.  Lon- 

don, 1880. 

**  An  Outline  History  of  Japanese  Education,  New  York,  1876.  This  mono- 
graph, prepared  for  the  Centennial  Exposition  at  Philadelphia,  reviews 
the  educational  influences  of  Corea  upon  Japan.  The  information  given 
is,  with  other  data,  from  Klaproth,  utilized  in  Pickering’s  Chronological 
History  of  Plants,  by  Charles  Pickering,  M.D.,  Boston,  1879. 

* Japanese  Chronological  Tables.  By  William  Bramsen,  Tokio,  1880.  An  in- 

valuable essay  on  Japanese  chronology,  which  was,  like  the  Corean,  based 
on  the  Chinese  system.  We  have  used  this  work  of  the  lamented  scholar 
(who  died  a few  months  after  it  was  published)  in  rendering  dates  ex- 
pressed in  terms  of  the  Chinese  into  those  of  the  Gregorian  or  modern 
system. 

**  History  of  the  Mongols  3 vols.  pp.  1827.  London,  1876.  By  Henry  Howortli. 
This  portly  work  is  full  of  the  fruits  of  research  concerning  the  people 
led  by  Genghis  Khan.  It  contains  excellent  maps  of  Asia,  and  of  Mon- 
golia, and  Manchuria,  illustrating  the  Mongol  conquests. 

f Cho-sen  Ki-che.  (Memorandum  upon  Corean  Affairs. ) The  Chinese  ambassa- 
dor sent  by  the  Ming  emperor  in  1450,  gives  in  this  little  work  an  account 
of  his  journey,  which  throws  light  upon  the  political  and  geographical 
situation  of  Cho-sen  and  China  at  that  time.  Quoted  by  M.  Solierzer,  but 
not  translated. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


XVII 


* Nihon  Guaislii.  Military  History  of  Japan,  by  Rai  Sanyo.  This  is  the 

Japanese  standard  history.  It  was  published  in  1827  in  twenty-two  vol- 
umes. It  covers  the  period  from  the  Taira  and  Minamoto  families  to  that 
of  the  Tokugawa  in  the  seventeenth  century.  The  first  part  of  this  work 
was  translated  into  Lnglish  by  Mr.  Ernest  Satow,  and  published  in  The 
Japan  Mail  at  Yokohama,  1872-74.  In  the  latter  portion  the  invasion  of 
Cho-sen,  1592-97,  is  outlined. 

* Cho-sen  Seito  Shimatsuki.  A work  in  five  volumes,  giving  an  account  of 

the  embassies,  treaties,  documents  relating  to  the  invasion  of  1592-97, 
with  an  outline  of  the  war,  geographical  notes,  with  nine  maps  by  Yama- 
zaki  Masanagi  and  Miura  Katsuyoshi. 

* Illustrated  History  of  the  Invasion  of  Cho-sen.  Written  by  Tsurumine 

Hikoicliiro.  Illustrations  by  Hashimoto  Giokuron.  20  vols.  Yedo,  1858. 
This  popular  work,  besides  an  outline  of  Corean  history  from  the  beginning, 
condensed  from  local  legends  and  Chinese  writers,  details  the  operations 
of  war  and  diplomacy  relating  to  Hideyoshi’s  invasion.  It  is  copiously 
illustrated  with  first-class  wood  engravings.  It  has  not  been  translated. 

* Cho-sen  Monogatari.  A Diary  and  Narrative  of  the  Japanese  Military  Opera- 

tions in  Clio-sen  during  the  Campaign  of  1594-97,  by  Okoji  Hidemoto. 
Copied  out  and  published  in  1672,  and  again  in  1849.  This  narrative  of 
an  eye-witness  was  written  by  the  author  at  the  time  of  the  events  de- 
scribed, and  afterward  copied  by  his  own  son  and  deposited  in  the  temple 
at  which  his  ancestors  worshipped.  This  vivid  and  spirited  story  of  the 
second  invasion  of  Cho-sen  by  Hidevoshi  has  been  translated  into  German 
by  Dr.  A.  Pfizmaier,  under  the  title  Der  Feldzug  der  Japaner  gegen  Corea, 
im  Jahre,  1597.  2 vols.  Vienna,  1875  : 4to,  pp.  98  ; 1876  : 4to,  pp.  58. 

**  Chohitsuroku.  History  of  the  Embassies,  Treaties,  and  War  Operations 
during  the  Japanese  Invasion.  This  work  is  by  a Corean  author,  who 
was  one  of  the  ministers  of  the  king  throughout  the  war.  It  is  written 
in  Chinese,  has  a map,  and  gives  the  Corean  side  of  the  history  of  affairs 
from  about  1585  to  1598.  8 vols. 

* Three  Severall  Testimonies  Concerning  the  mighty  Kingdom  of  Coray, 

tributary  to  the  Kingdom  of  China,  and  bordering  upon  her  Northeastern 
Frontiers,  and  called  by  the  Portugales,  Coria,  etc.,  etc.,  collected  out  of 
Portugale  yeerely  Japonian  Epistles,  dated  1390,  1592,  1594.  In  Hak- 
luyt, London,  1600. 

* Hideyoshi’s  Invasion  of  Korea.  Trans.  Asiatic  Society-  of  Japan.  By  W.  G. 

Aston.  In  these  papers  Mr.  Aston  gives  the  results  of  a study-  of  the  cam- 
paign of  1592-97,  as  found  in  Japanese  and  Corean  authors. 

**  Lettre  Annuelle  de  Mars  1598,  ecrite  par  le  P.  Pierre  Gomez  an  P.  Claude 
Acquavira,  general  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jesus.  Milan,  1597,  p.  112  et 
suiv.  In  Hakluyt. 

* Histoire  de  la  Religion  Clir'tienne  au  Japon.  Par  Leon  Pages.  2 vols., 

text  and  documents.  Paris,  1869. 

**  Histoire  des  deux  Conquerans  Tartares,  qui  ont  subjuge  la  Chine,  par  le  R. 
P.  Pierre  Joseph  D’Orliens. 

*Ch6-sen  Monogatari  (Romantic  Narrative  of  Travels  in  Corea),  by  two  Men 
from  Mikuni,  in  Echizen,  cast  ashore  in  Tartary  in  1645.  This  work  is 
digested  in  Siebold’s  Arcliiv. 


xvm 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


* Narrative  of  an  Unlucky  Voyage  and  Imprisonment  in  Corea,  1653-1667 

In  Astley’s  and  Pinkerton’s  Voyages.  By  Hendrik  Hamel. 

* Imperial  Chinese  Atlas,  containing  maps  of  China  and  each  of  the  Provinces, 

including  Shing-king  and  the  neutral  strip. 

* Ilistoire  de  l’Eglise  de  Coree,  par  Ch.  Dallet.  2 vols.  8vo,  pp.  982.  Paris, 

1874.  This  excellent  work  contains  192  pages  of  introduction,  full  of  ac- 
curate information  concerning  the  political  social  life,  geography,  and 
language  of  Corea,  and  a history  of  the  introduction  and  progress  of  Ro- 
man Christianity,  and  the  labors  of  the  French  missionaries,  from  1784- 
1866.  It  contains  also  a map  and  four  charts  of  Corean  writing. 

* Une  Expedition  en  Coree.  In  la  Tour  du  Monde  for  1873  there  is  an  ar- 

ticle of  16  pp.  (401-417)  with  illustrations,  by  M.  H.  Zuber,  a French 
naval  officer,  who  was  in  Corea  in  1866  under  Admiral  Roze.  An  excel- 
lent descriptive  paper  by  an  eye-witness. 

* Diary  of  a Chinese  Envoy  to  Corea  (Journal  d’une  Mission  en  Coree),  by 

Koei  Ling,  Ambassador  of  his  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  China,  to  the  court 
of  Clio-sen  in  1866.  Translated  from  the  Chinese  into  French  by  F. 
Scherzer,  Interpreter  to  the  French  Legation  at  Peking.  8vo,  pp.  77. 
Paris,  1882.  This  journal  of  the  last  Chinese  ambassador  to  Seoul  is  well 
rendered,  and  is  copiously  supplied  witli  explanatory  notes,  and  a colored 
map  of  the  author’s  route  from  Peking  through  Chili,  Shing-King,  via 
Mukden,  and  through  three  provinces  of  Corea  to  Seoul, 
f Many  memoirs  and  special  papers  prepared  by  French  officers  in  the  expedi- 
tion to  Corea  in  1866  were  prepared  and  read  before  local  societies  at 
Cherbourg,  Lyons,  etc. 

j Expedition  de  Coree.  Revue  maritime  et  coloniale,  February,  1867,  pp. 
474-481. 

f Paris  Moniteur,  1866-67. 

**  Lettre  sur  la  Coree  et  son  Eglise  Chretienne.  Bulletin  de  la  Societe 
Geograpliique  de  Lyon,  1876,  pp.  278-282,  and  June,  1870,  pp.  417-422, 
and  map. 

**  The  Corean  Martyrs.  By  Canon  Shorthand.  1 vol.,  pp.  115.  London.  Com- 
piled from  the  letters  of  the  French  missionaries. 

**Nouvelle  Geographic  Universelle.  This  superb  treasury  of  geographical 
science,  still  unfinished,  contains  a full  summary  of  our  knowledge  of  Corea, 
especially  showing  the  prominent  part  which  French  navigators,  scholars, 
and  missionaries  have  taken  in  its  exploration.  Paris. 

**  Voyage  of  Discovery  to  the  North  Pacific  Ocean  and  Round  the  World.  By 
William  R.  Broughton.  2 vols.  4to,  with  atlas.  London,  1804. 

**  Voyage  Round  the  World.  By  Jean  Francois  de  Gallou  de  La  Perouse. 
London,  1799. 

**  Voyages  to  the  Eastern  Seas  in  the  year  1818.  By  Basil  Hall.  New  York, 
London,  and  revised  by  Captain  Hall  in  1827.  Jamaica,  N.  Y. 

* Narrative  of  a Voyage  in  His  Majesty’s  late  Ship  Alceste,  to  the  Yellow  Sea, 

along  the  Coast  of  Corea,  and  through  its  numerous  hitherto  undiscovered 
Islands,  etc.,  etc.  By  John  McLeod,  Surgeon  of  the  Alceste.  1 vol.,  pp. 
288  (see  pp.  38-53).  London,  1877.  A witty  and  lively  narrative. 

**  Voyages  along  the  Coast  of  Cliina(Corea),  etc.  By  Charles  Gutzlaff.  1 vol.,  pp. 
332.  New  Y'ork,  1833.  (From  July  17,  to  August  17,  1832  ; pp.  254-287.) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


XIX 


* Narrative  of  the  Voyage  of  H.M.S.  Samarang,  during  the  years  1843-46. 

By  Captain  Sir  B.  Belcher.  2 vols.  8vo,  pp.  574r-378.  London,  1848. 
Vol.  i.  pp.  324-358;  vol.  ii.,  pp.  444—166,  relate  to  Corea. 

* American  Commerce  with  China.  By  Gideon  Nye,  Esq.  In  the  Far  East. 

Shanghae,  1878.  A history  of  the  commercial  relations  of  the  United 
States  with  China,  especially  before  1800. 

* Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the  United  States,  China,  and  Japan,  1866-81. 

* Report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  to  Congress,  pp.  275-313.  1872. 

* Private  Notes,  Charts,  and  Maps  of  Officers  of  the  United  States  Navy  who 

were  in  Corea  in  1871. 

**  A Summer  Dream  of  ’71.  A Story  of  Corea.  By  T.  G.  The  Far  East 
Shanghae,  April,  1878. 

* Journey  through  Eastern  Mantchooria  and  Korea.  By  Walton  Grinnell. 

Journal  American  Geographical  Society,  1870-71,  pp.  283-300. 

* Japan  and  Corea.  A valuable  monograph  in  six  chapters,  by  Mr.  E.  H. 

House,  in  The  Tokio  Times,  1877. 

**  On  a Collection  of  Crustacea  made  in  the  Corean  and  Japanese  Seas.  J. 
Muirs,  1879.  London  Zoological  Society’s  Proceedings  (pp.  18-81,  pis. 
1-113).  Reviewed  by  J.  S.  Kingsley.  Norwich,  N.  Y.  American 
Naturalist. 

**  A Private  Trip  in  Corea.  By  Frank  Cowan,  M.D.  The  Japan  Mail,  1880. 
f The  Leading  Men  of  Japan.  By  Charles  Lanman.  Boston,  1882.  Contains 
a chapter  on  Corea. 

* Manuscript  volume  of  pencil  notes  made  by  Kawamura  Kuansliiu,  an  officer 

on  the  Japanese  gunboat  Unyo-kuan,  during  her  cruise  and  capture  of 
the  Kang-wa  Fort,  1875.  Partly  printed  in  the  Japan  Mail. 

* Journals  of  Japanese  Military  and  Diplomatic  Officers  who  have  visited  Corea, 

and  Correspondence  of  the  Japanese  newspapers,  from  Seoul,  Fusan,  Gen- 
san,  etc.  These  have  been  partly  translated  for  the  English  press  at  Yo- 
kohama. 

* Correspondence,  Notes,  Editorials,  etc.,  in  the  English  and  French  newspa- 

pers published  in  China  and  Japan. 

**  Maru-maru  Sliimbun  (Japanese  Punch). 

* Cho-sen  : Its  Eight  Administrative  Divisions.  1 vol.  T6ki5,  Japan,  1882. 

* Cho-sen  Jijo.  A short  Account  of  Corea,  its  History,  Productions,  etc.  2 

vols.  Tokio,  1875. 

* Cho-sen  Bunkenroku  (Things  Seen  and  Heard  concerning  Corea).  By  Sato 

Hakushi.  2 vols.  Tokio,  1875. 

* Travels  of  a Naturalist  in  Japan  [Corea]  and  Manchuria.  By  Arthur  Adams. 

1 vol.,  pp.  334.  London,  1870.  See  chaps,  x. , xi.,  pp.  125-166. 
**Ueberdie  Reise  der  Kais.  Corvette  Hertha,  in  besondere  nach  Corea. 
Kramer,  Marine  Prediger.  Zeit.  fur  Etlinologie,  1873.  Verliandlungen, 
pp.  49-54. 

**  A Forbidden  Land.  By  Ernest  Oppert.  1 vol.,  pp.  349.  Illustrations, 
charts,  etc.  New  York,  1880. 

**  Journeys  in  North  China.  By  Rev.  A.  Williamson.  2 vols.  16mo.  Lon- 
don, 1870.  Besides  a chapter  on  Corea,  this  work  contains  an  excellent 
map  of  the  country  north  and  east  of  Cho-sen 

* * The  Middle  Kingdom.  By  S.  Wells  Williams. 


XX 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


**  Consular  Reports  in  the  Blue  Books  of  the  British  Government,  especially 
the  Reports  of  Mr.  McPherson,  Consul  at  Niu-chwang.  January,  1866. 

~ Handbook  for  Central  and  Northern  Japan,  with  maps  and  plans.  Satow 
and  Hawes.  1 vol.  16mo,  pp.  489.  this  work,  which  leaves  nothing  to 
he  desired  as  a guide-book,  contains  several  references  to  Corean  art  and 
history. 

**  The  Wild  Coasts  of  Nipon.  By  Captain  H.  C.  St.  John  (who  surveyed  some 
parts  of  Southern  Corea  in  II.B.M.S.  Sylvia).  See  chap,  xii.,  pp.  235-25r>, 
with  a map  of  Corea. 

**  Darlegun  aus  der  Geschiclite  und  Geographic  Coreas.  Pfizmaier.  8vo,  pp. 
56.  Vienna,  1874. 

f Petermann’s  Mittheilungen,  No.  1,  Carte  No.  19,  1871. 

**  Das  Konigreich  Korea.  Von  Kloden.  Aus  alien  Welth.,  x.,  Nos.  5 u.  6. 

| Corea.  Geographical  Magazine.  (S.  Mossman.)  vi.  p.  148,  1877. 

f Corea.  By  Captain  Allen  Young,  Royal  Geographical  Society.  Vol.  ix.,  No. 
6,  pp.  296-300. 

**  China,  with  an  Appendix  on  Corea.  By  Charles  Eden.  1 vol.,  pp.  281- 
322.  London.  A popular  compilation. 

**  Korea  and  the  Lost  Tribes,  and  Map  and  Chart  of  Korea.  Text  and  illus- 
trations. The  title  of  this  work  is  sufficient.  Even  the  bibliography  of 
Corea  has  a comic  side. 

**  Clii-sliima  (Kurile  Islands)  and  Russian  Invasion.  A lecture  delivered  in 
Japanese,  before  the  Tokio  United  Geographical  Society,  February  24, 
1882.  By  Admiral  Enomoto.  This  valuable  historical  treatise,  translated 
for  the  Japan  Mail  and  Japan  Herald,  contains  much  information  about 
Russian  operations  in  the  countries  bordering  the  North  Pacific  and  the 
Coreans  north  of  the  Tumen. 

(•  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  Geograpliique,  1875.  Corean  villages  in  the  Russian 
possessions  described. 

**  Ravensteins,  The  Russians  on  the  Amoor.  London,  1861. 

| Die  Insel  Quelpart.  Deutsche  Geogr.  Blatter,  1879.  iii. , No.  1,  S.  45-46. 

j A Trip  to  Quelpaert.  Nautical  Magazine,  1870,  No.  4,  p.  321-325. 

**  The  Edinburgh  Review  of  1872,  and  Fortnightly  Review  of  1875,  contain 
articles  on  Corea. 

* The  Missionary  Record  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland, 

Edinburgh,  containing  the  Correspondence  and  Notes  of  the  Missionaries 
laboring  among  the  Chinese  and  Coreans,  and  who  have  translated  the 
New  Testament  into  Corean. 

t La  Coree,  par  M.  Paul  Tournafond,  editor  of  L’Exploration,  a geographical 
journal  published  in  Paris,  which  contains  frequent  notes  on  Corea. 

f La  Coree,  ses  Ressources,  son  avenir  commercial,  par  Maurice  Jametel. 
L’Economiste  Francjais,  Juillet  23,  1881. 

* The  Japan  Herald,  The  Japan  Mail,  The  Japan  Gazette,  L’Echo  du  Japan, 

of  Yokohama,  and  North  China  Herald,  Slianghae,  have  furnished  much 
information  concerning  recent  events  in  Corea. 

Corea,  the  Last  of  the  Hermit  Nations.  Sunday  Magazine,  New  York,  May,  1878. 

Corea  and  the  United  States.  The  Independent,  New  York,  Nov.  17,  1881. 

Corea,  the  Hermit  Nation.  Bulletin  of  the  American  Geographical  Society, 
New  York,  1881,  No.  3. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


XXI 


Chautauqua  Text-Books,  No.  84.  Asiatic  History  ; China,  Corea,  Japan.  lGmo, 
pp.  86.  New  York,  1881. 

Library  of  Universal  Knowledge,  articles  Corea,  Fusan,  Gensan,  Kang-wa,  eta 
New  York,  1880. 

Cyclopedia  of  Political  Science,  etc.,  article  Corea.  Chicago,  1881. 

The  Corean  Origin  of  Japanese  Art.  Century  Magazine.  December,  1882. 
By  Wm.  Elliot  Griffis. 


ORTHOGRAPHY  AND  PRONUNCIATION. 

In  the  transliteration  of  Corean  names  into  English,  an  attempt  has  been 
made  to  render  them  in  as  accurate  and  simple  a manner  as  is,  under  the  cir- 
cumstances, possible.  The  Coreans  themselves  have  no  uniform  system  of 
spelling  proper  names,  nor  do  the  French  missionaries  agree  in  their  render- 
ings— as  a comparison  of  their  maps  and  writings  shows.  Our  aim  in  this 
work  has  been  to  use  as  few  letters  as  possible. 

Japanese  words  are  all  pronounced  according  to  the  European  method — a as 
in  father , e as  in  prey,  e as  in  men,  i as  in  machine,  o as  in  bone,  u as  in  tune,  u 
as  in  sun  ; ai  as  in  aisle,  ua  as  in  quaran  tine , ei  as  in  feign,  and  in  is  sounded 
as  yu  ; g is  always  hard ; and  c before  a vowel,  g soft,  l,  q,  s used  as  z,  x,  and 
the  combinations  pli  and  th  are  not  used.  The  long  vowel,  rather  diphthong  o, 
or  oho,  is  marked  b. 

The  most  familiar  Chinese  names  are  retained  in  their  usual  English  form. 

Corean  words  are  transliterated  on  the  same  general  principles  as  the  Japa- 
nese, though  ears  familiar  with  Corean  will  find  the  obscure  sound  between 
o and  short  u is  written  with  either  of  these  letters,  as  Clian-yon,  or  In-chiun, 
or  Kiung-sang.  Ch  may  sometimes  be  used  instead  of  j ; and  e where  o or  a 
or  u might  more  correctly  be  used,  as  in  Kang-wen,  or  Wen-chiu.  Instead  of 
the  French  ou.  or  ho,  we  have  written  W,  as  in  Whang-hai,  Kang-wa,  rather 
than  Hoang-hai,  Kang-hoa,  Kang-ouen,  Tai-ouen  Kun,  etc.  ; and  in  place  of 
ts  we  have  used  ch,  as  Kwang-chiu  rather  than  Kwang-tsiu,  and  Wen-chiu 
than  Ouen-tsiu. 


MAPS  AND  PLANS 


FAOH 


Ancestral  Seats  of  the  Fuyu  Race, 25 

Sam-han,  .............  30 

Ancient  Japan  and  Corea,  .........  50 

The  Neutral  Territory,  .........  85 

The  Japanese  Military  Operations  of  1592,  ......  99 

The  Campaign  in  the  North,  1592-1593,  .......  107 

The  Operations  of  the  Second  Invasion,  .......  131 

Plan  of  Uru-san  Castle,  . . . . . . . . . .138 

Home  of  the  Manchius  and  their  Migrations,  . . . . . .155 

The  Jesuit  Survey  of  1709,  .........  165 

Ping-an  Province,  . . . . . . . . . . .181 

The  Yellow  Sea  Province,  .........  185 

The  Capital  Province,  ..........  188 

Military  Geography  of  Seoul, 190 

Chung-chong  Province, 194 

Chulla-do,  . ..........  199 

The  Province  Nearest  Japan, 204 

Kang-wen  Province,  ..........  208 

Corean  Frontier  Facing  Manchuria  and  Russia, 210 

Southern  Part  of  Ham-kiung,  .........  215 

The  Missionary’s  Gateway  into  Corea, 3G4 

Border  Towns  of  Northern  Corea,  ........  365 

The  French  Naval  and  Military  Operations,  1866,  .....  379 

Map  Illustrating  the  “ General  Sherman  ” Affair,  ...  . 393 

Map  Illustrating  the  “ China  ” Affair,  .......  400 

Map  of  the  American  Naval  Operations  in  1871,  .....  415 


General  Map  of  Corea  at  the  End  of  1906 


At  end  of  volume. 


CONTENTS, 


PART  I. 

ANCIENT  AND  MEDLEVAL  HISTORY. 

CHAPTER  I. 

PAG* 

The  Corean  Peninsula, 1 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  Old  Kingdom  of  Clio-sen,  11 

CHAPTER  IH. 

The  Fuyu  Race  and  their  Migrations, 19 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Sam-lian,  or  Southern  Corea,  .........  30 

CHAPTER  V. 

Epoch  of  the  Three  Kingdoms. — Hiaksai,  ......  35 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Epoch  of  the  Three  Kingdoms. — Korai,  ......  40 

CHAPTER  VH. 

Epoch  of  the  Three  Kingdoms. — Shinra,  ......  43 

CHAPTER  VIH. 

Japan  and  Corea, 51 


XXIV 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

PAG* 

Korai,  or  United  Corea,  .........  Go 

CHAPTER  X. 

Cathay,  Zipangu,  and  the  Mongols,  70 

CHAPTER  XI. 

New  Cho-sen,  ............  7G 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Events  Leading  to  the  Japanese  Invasion,  ......  88 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

The  Invasion — On  to  Seoul 95 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

The  Campaign  in  the  North,  . . . . . . . . .104 

CHAPTER  XV. 

The  Retreat  from  Seoul,  . . . . . . . . . .115 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

Cespedes,  the  Christian  Chaplain,  ........  121 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

Diplomacy  at  Kioto  and  Peking, 124 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

The  Second  Invasion,  . . . . . . . , . .129 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

The  Siege  of  Uru-san  Castle,  . . . . . . . . .137 

CHAPTER  XX. 

Changes  after  the  Invasion,  ......  ...  145 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

The  Issachar  of  Eastern  Asia 154 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

The  Dutchmen  in  Exile,  ..........  1G7 


CONTENTS. 


XXV 


PART  II. 

POLITICAL  AND  SOCIAL  COREA. 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

PASS 

The  Eight  Provinces, 179 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

The  King  and  Royal  Palace,  .........  218 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

Political  Parties,  ...........  224 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 

Organization  and  Methods  of  Government,  ......  233 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

Feudalism,  Serfdom,  and  Society,  ........  237 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

Social  Life. — Woman  and  the  Family,  .......  244 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 

Child  Life,  ............  250 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

Housekeeping,  Diet,  and  Costume,  ........  262 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 

Mourning  and  Burial,  277 

CHAPTER  XXXII. 

Out-door  Life. — Characters  and  Employments,  .....  284 
CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

Shamanism  and  Mythical  Zoology,  ...  • . . . 300 


XXIV 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

NCI 

Korai,  or  United  Corea 03 

CHAPTER  X. 

Cathay,  Zipangu,  and  the  Mongols,  TO 

CHAPTER  XI. 

New  Cho-sen,  ............  76 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Events  Leading  to  the  Japanese  Invasion,  ......  88 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

The  Invasion — On  to  Seoul,  .........  95 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

The  Campaign  in  the  North,  .........  104 

CHAPTER  XV. 

The  Retreat  from  Seoul,  . . . . . . . . . .115 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

Cespedes,  the  Christian  Chaplain,  ........  121 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

Diplomacy  at  Kioto  and  Peking,  .......  124 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

The  Second  Invasion,  . . . . . . . , . .120 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

The  Siege  of  Uru-san  Castle,  . . . . . . . . .137 

CHAPTER  XX. 

Changes  after  the  Invasion,  ......  ...  145 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

The  Issachar  of  Eastern  Asia 154 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

The  Dutchmen  in  Exile, 167 


CONTENTS. 


XXV 


PART  II. 

POLITICAL  AND  SOCIAL  COPEA. 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

PAOB 

The  Eight  Provinces, 179 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

The  King  and  Royal  Palace,  .........  218 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

Political  Parties,  ...........  224 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 

Organization  and  Methods  of  Government,  ......  230 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

Feudalism,  Serfdom,  and  Society,  ........  237 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

Social  Life. — Woman  and  the  Family,  .......  244 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 

Child  Life,  ........  ....  2Ji(> 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

Housekeeping,  Diet,  and  Costume,  ........  262 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 

Mourning  and  Burial,  ..........  277 

CHAPTER  XXXII. 

Out-door  Life. — Characters  and  Employments,  .....  284 

CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

Shamanism  and  Mythical  Zoology,  ...  • . . . 300 


XXVI 


COX  i'ENTS. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

PAGE 

Legends  and  Folk-lore,  ..........  1107 

CHAPTER  XXXV. 

Proverbs  and  Pithy  Sayings,  ....  ...  317 

CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

The  Corean  Tiger,  ...........  320 

CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

Religion,  ............  326 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

Education  and  Culture,  ..........  337 


PART  HI. 

MODERN  AND  RECENT  HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

PAGE 

The  Beginnings  of  Christianity — 1784-1794, 347 

CHAPTER  XL. 

Persecution  and  Martyrdom — 1801-1834,  ......  353 

CHAPTER  XLI. 

The  Entrance  of  the  French  Missionaries — 1835-1845,  ....  301 

CHAPTER  XLII. 

The  Walls  of  Isolation  Sapped, 367 

CHAPTER  XLHI. 

The  French  Expedition,  ..........  377 

CHAPTER  XLIV. 


American  Relations  with  Corea, 


. 388 


CONTENTS.  XXVli 

CHAPTER  XLV. 

PAGE 

A Body-Snatching  Expedition, 396 

CHAPTER  XLVI. 

Our  Little  War  with  the  Heathen, 403 

CHAPTER  XLVII. 

The  Ports  Opened  to  Japanese  Commerce, 420 

CHAPTER  XLVIII. 

The  Year  of  the  Treaties, 433 

CHAPTER  XLIX. 

The  Economic  Condition  of  Corea, 443 

CHAPTER  L. 

Internal  Politics:  Chinese  and  Japanese, 458 

CHAPTER  LI. 

The  War  of  1894:  Corea  an  Empire 472 

CHAPTER  LII. 

Japan  and  Russia  in  Conflict 484 

CHAPTER  LIII. 

Corea  a Japanese  Protectorate 497 

CHAPTER  LIV. 

Cho-sen:  A Province  of  Japan,  . 507 


INDEX, 


521 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAG* 

A City  in  Cnrpn.  .........  Frontispiece. 

Corean  Coin, 10 

Coin  of  Modern  Clio-sen, 18 

The  Founder  of  Fuyu  Crossing  the  Sungari  River,  . . . . .20 

Coin  of  the  Sam-lian,  or  the  Three  Kingdoms,  . . . . .84 

Coin  of  Korai, 09 

Two-masted  Corean  Vessel,  .........  75 

The  Walls  of  Seoul,  79 

Magistrate  and  Servant,  ..........  81 

Corean  Knight  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  ......  101 

Styles  of  Hair-dressing  in  Corea,  . . . . . . .101 

A Pleasure-party  on  the  River,  ........  190 

Corean  Village  in  Russian  Territory,  . . . . . . .211 

Table  Spread  for  Festal  Occasions,  ........  204 

Gentlemen's  Garments  and  Dress  Patterns,  ......  275 

Thatched  House  near  Seoul, 282 

Battle-flag  Cantured  by  the  Americans  in  1871,  .....  305 

Battle-flag  Captured  in  the  Han  Forts,  1871,  ......  320 

House  and  Garden  of  a Noble,  ........  355 

Breech-loading  Cannon  of  Corean  Manufacture,  .....  382 

The  Entering  Wedge  of  Civilization,  . 407 


I. 

ANCIENT  AND  MEDIAEVAL 
HISTORY 


COREA 


THE  HERMIT  NATION. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  COREAN  PENINSULA. 

Corea,  though  unknown  even  by  name  in  Europe  until  the  six- 
teenth century,  was  the  subject  of  description  by  Arab  geogra- 
phers of  the  middle  ages.  Before  the  peninsula  was  known  as  a 
political  unit,  the  envoys  of  Shinra,  one  of  the  three  Corean  states, 
and  those  from  Persia  met  face  to  face  before  the  throne  of  China. 
The  Arab  merchants  trading  to  Chinese  ports  crossed  the  Yellow 
Sea,  visited  the  peninsula,  and  even  settled  there.  The  youths  of 
Shinra,  sent  by  their  sovereign  to  study  the  arts  of  war  and  peace 
at  Nanking,  the  mediaeval  capitol  of  China,  may  often  have  seen  and 
talked  with  the  merchants  of  Bagdad  and  Damascus.  The  Corean 
term  for  Mussulmans  is  hoi-hoi,  “ round  and  round ” men.  Corean 
art  shows  the  undoubted  influence  of  Persia. 

A very  interesting  passage  in  the  chronicles  of  Japan,  while 
illustrating  the  sensitive  regard  of  the  Japanese  for  the  forms  of 
etiquette,  shows  another  point  of  contact  between  Corean  and 
Saracen  civilization.  It  occurs  in  the  Nihon  O Dai  Ichi  Ran,  or 
“A  View  of  the  Imperial  Family  of  Japan.”  “ In  the  first  month 
of  the  sixth  year  of  Tempio  Shdho  [February,  754  a.d.],  the  Japan- 
ese nobles  Ohan  no  Ivomaro  and  Kibi  no  Mabi  returned  from 
China,  in  which  country  they  had  left  Fujiwara  no  Seiga.  The 
former  reported  that  at  the  audience  which  they  had  of  the  Em- 
peror Gen  sho,  on  New  Year’s  Day  [January  18tli],  the  ambassadors 


o 


COREA. 


of  Towan  [Thibet]  occupied  the  first  place  to  the  west,  those  from 
Shinra  the  first  place  to  the  east,  and  that  the  second  place  to  the 
west  had  been  destined  for  them  (the  Japanese  envoys),  and  the 
second  place  to  the  east  for  the  ambassadors  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Dai  Shoku  [Persia,  then  part  of  the  empire  of  the  Caliphs], 
Komaro,  offended  with  this  arrangement,  asked  why  the  Chinese 
should  give  precedence  over  them  to  the  envoys  of  Shinra,  a state 
which  had  long  been  tributary  to  Japan.  The  Chinese  officials, 
impressed  alike  with  the  firmness  and  displeasure  exhibited  by 
Komaro,  assigned  to  the  Japanese  envoys  a place  above  those  of 
Persia  and  to  the  envoys  of  Shinra  a place  above  those  of  Thibet.” 
Thus  the  point  at  issue  was  settled,  by  avoiding  it,  and  assign- 
ing equal  honor  to  Shinra  and  Japan. 

This  incident  alone  shows  that  close  communications  were  kept 
up  between  the  far  east  and  the  west  of  Asia,  and  that  Corea  was 
known  beyond  Chinese  Asia.  At  that  time  the  boundaries  of  the 
two  empires,  the  Arab  and  the  Chinese,  touched  each  other. 

The  first  notice  of  Corea  in  western  books  or  writings  occurs  in 
the  works  of  Khordadbeh,  an  Arab  geographer  of  the  ninth  century, 
in  his  Book  of  Roads  and  Provinces.  He  is  thus  quoted  by  Rich- 
thofen in  his  work  on  China  (p.  575,  note) : 

“ What  lies  on  the  other  side  of  China  is  unknown  land.  But 
high  mountains  rise  up  densely  across  from  Kantu.  These  lie  over 
in  the  land  of  Sila,  which  is  rich  in  gold.  Mussulmans  who  visit 
this  country  often  allow  themselves,  through  the  advantages  of  the 
same,  to  be  induced  to  settle  here.  They  export  from  thence  gin- 
seng, deerhorn,  aloes,  camphor,  nails,  saddles,  porcelain,  satin, 
zimmit  (cinnamon  ?)  and  galanga  (ginger?).” 

Richthofen  rightly  argues  that  Sila  is  Shinra  and  Kantu  is  the 
promontory  province  of  Shantung.  This  Arabic  term  “Sila”  is  a 
corruption  of  Shinra — the  predominant  state  in  Corea  at  the  time 
of  Khordadbeh. 

The  name  of  this  kingdom  was  pronounced  by  the  Japanese, 
Shinra,  and  by  the  Chinese,  Sinlo — the  latter  easily  altered  in 
Arabic  mouths  to  Sila. 

The  European  name  Corea  is  derived  from  the  Japanese  term 
Korai  (Chinese  Kaoli),  the  name  of  another  state  in  the  peninsula, 
rival  to  Shinra.  It  was  also  the  official  title  of  the  nation  from  the 
eleventh  to  the  fourteenth  century.  The  Portuguese,  who  were  the 
first  navigators  of  the  Yellow  Sea,  brought  the  name  to  Europe, 
calling  the  country  Coria,  whence  the  English  Corea. 


THE  COREAN  PENINSULA. 


3 


The  French  Jesuits  at  Peking  Gallicized  this  into  Coree.  Fol- 
lowing the  genius  of  their  language,  they  call  it  La  Coree,  just  as 
they  speak  of  England  as  L’Angleterre,  Germany  as  L’Allemande, 
and  America  as  L’Amerique.  Hence  has  arisen  the  curious  desig- 
nation, used  even  by  English  writers,  of  this  peninsula  as  “the 
Corea.  ” But  what  is  good  French  in  this  case  is  very  bad  English, 
and  we  should  no  more  say  “the  Corea”  than  “the  Germany,” 
“the  England,”  or  “the  America.”  English  usage  forbids  the 
employment  of  the  definite  article  before  a proper  name,  and  those 
writers  who  persist  in  prefixing  the  definite  article  to  the  proper 
name  Corea  are  either  ignorant  of  the  significance  of  the  word,  or 
knowingly  violate  the  laws  of  the  English  language.  The  native 
name  of  the  country  is  Cho-sen  (Morning  Calm  or  Fresh  Morning), 
which  French  writers,  always  prodigal  in  the  use  of  vowels,  spell 
Tsio-sen,  Teo-cen,  or  Tchao-sian.  The  Chinese  call  it  Tung  kwo 
(Eastern  Kingdom),  and  the  Manchius,  Sol-ho  or  Solbo. 

The  peninsula,  with  its  outlying  islands,  is  nearly  equal  in  size 
to  Minnesota  or  to  Great  Britain.  Its  area  is  between  eighty  and 
ninety  thousand  square  miles.  Its  coast  line  measures  1,740  miles. 
In  general  shape  and  relative  position  to  the  Asian  Continent  it 
resembles  Florida.  It  hangs  down  between  the  Middle  Kingdom 
and  the  Sunrise  Land,  separating  the  sea  of  Japan  and  the  Yellow 
Sea,  between  the  34th  and  43d  parallels  of  north  latitude.  In  its 
general  configuration,  when  looked  at  from  the  westward  on  a good 
map,  especially  the  magnificent  one  made  by  the  Japanese  War 
Depai'tment,  Cho-sen  resembles  the  outspread  wings  of  a headless 
butterfly,  the  lobes  of  the  wings  being  toward  China,  and  their  tops 
toward  Japan. 

Legend,  tradition,  and  geological  indications  lead  us  to  believe 
that  anciently  the  Chinese  promontory  and  province  of  Shantung 
and  the  Corean  peninsula  were  connected,  and  that  dry  land  once 
covered  the  space  filled  by  the  waters  joining  the  Gulf  of  Pechili 
and  the  Yellow  Sea.  These  waters  are  so  shallow  that  the  eleva- 
tion of  their  bottoms  but  a few  feet  would  restore  their  area  to  the 
land  surface  of  the  globe.  On  the  other  side,  also,  the  sea  of  Japan 
is  very  shallow,  and  the  straits  of  Corea,  at  their  greatest  depth, 
have  but  eighty-three  feet  of  water.  That  portion  of  the  Chinese 
province  of  Shing  King,  or  Southern  Manchuria,  bordering  the  sea, 
is  a great  plain,  or  series  of  flats  elevated  but  a few  feet  above  tide 
water,  which  becomes  nearly  impassable  during  heavy  rains. 

A marked  difference  is  noted  between  the  east  and  west  coasts 


4 


COREA. 


of  the  peninsula.  The  former  is  comparatively  destitute  of  harbors, 
and  the  shore  is  high,  monotonous,  and  but  slightly  indented  or 
fringed  with  islands.  It  contains  but  three  provinces.  On  the 
west  coast  are  five  provinces,  and  the  sea  is  thickly  strewn  with 
islands,  harbors  and  landing  places,  while  navigable  rivers  are 
more  numerous.  The  “ Corean  Archipelago  ” contains  an  amaz- 
ing number  of  fertile  and  inhabited  islands  and  islets  rising  out 
of  deep  water.  They  are  thus  described  by  the  naturalist  Arthur 
Adams  : 

“ Leaving  the  huge,  cone-like  island  of  Quelpaert  in  the  distance, 
the  freshening  breeze  bears  us  gallantly  toward  those  unknown 
islands  which  form  the  Archipelago  of  Korea.  As  you  approach 
them  you  look  from  the  deck  of  the  vessel  and  you  see  them  dot- 
ting the  wide,  blue,  boundless  plain  of  the  sea — grouj>s  and  clusters 
of  islands  stretching  away  into  the  far  distance.  Far  as  the  eye 
can  reach,  their  dark  masses  can  be  faintly  discerned,  and  as  we 
close,  one  after  another,  the  bold  outlines  of  their  mountain  peaks 
stand  out  clearly  against  the  cloudless  sky.  The  water  from  which 
they  seem  to  arise  is  so  deep  around  them  that  a ship  can  almost 
range  up  alongside  them.  The  rough,  gray  granite  and  basaltic 
cliffs,  of  which  they  are  composed,  show  them  to  be  only  the 
rugged  peaks  of  submerged  mountain  masses  which  have  been  rent, 
in  some  great  convulsion  of  nature,  from  the  peninsula  which 
stretches  into  the  sea  from  the  main  land.  You  gaze  upward  and 
see  the  weird,  fantastic  outline  which  some  of  their  torn  and 
riven  peaks  present.  In  fact,  they  have  assumed  such  peculiar 
forms  as  to  have  suggested  to  navigators  characteristic  names. 
Here,  for  example,  stands  out  the  fretted,  crumbling  towers  of  one 
called  Windsor  Castle,  there  frowns  a noble  rock-ruin,  the  Monas- 
tery, and  here  again,  mounting  to  the  skies,  the  Abbey  Peak. 

“ Some  of  the  islands  of  this  Archipelago  are  very  lofty,  and  one 
was  ascertained  to  boast  of  a naked  granite  peak  more  than  two 
thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Many  of  the  summits  are 
crowned  with  a dense  forest  of  conifers,  dark  trees,  very  similar  in 
appearance  to  Scotch  firs.” 

The  king  of  Corea  may  well  be  called  “ Sovereign  of  Ten 
Thousand  Isles.” 

Almost  the  only  striking  feature  of  the  inland  physical  geogra- 
phy of  Cho-sen,  heretofore  generally  known,  is  that  chain  of  moun- 
tains which  traverses  the  peninsula  from  North  to  South,  not  in  a 
straight  line,  but  in  an  exceedingly  sinuous  course,  similar  to  the 


THE  COREAN  PENINSULA. 


5 


tacking  of  a ship  when  sailing  in  the  eye  of  the  wind.  As  the 
Coreans  say,  “ it  winds  out  and  in  ninety-nine  times.” 

Stinking  out  from  Manchuria  it  trends  eastward  to  the  sea  at 
Cape  Bruat  on  the  41st  parallel,  thence  it  strikes  southwest  about 
eighty  miles  to  the  region  west  of  Broughton’s  Bay  (the  narrowest 
part  of  Corea),  whence  it  bears  westward  to  the  sea  at  the  37tli  paral- 
lel, or  Cape  Pelissier,  where  its  angle  culminates  in  the  lofty  mountain 
peaks  named  by  the  Russians  Mount  Popoff — after  the  inventor  of 
the  high  turret  ships.  From  this  point  it  throws  off  a fringe  of 
lesser  hills  to  the  southward  while  the  main  chain  strikes  south- 
west, and  after  forming  the  boundary  between  two  most  southern 
provinces  reaches  the  sea  near  the  Amherst  Isles.  Nor  does  its 
course  end  here,  for  the  uncounted  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  with 
their  fantastic  rock-ruins  and  perennial  greenery,  that  suggest  de- 
serted castles  and  abbeys  mantled  with  ivy,  are  but  the  wave-worn 
and  shattered  remnants  of  this  lordly  range. 

This  chief  feature  in  the  physical  geography  of  the  peninsula  de- 
termines largely  its  configuration,  climate,  river  system  and  water- 
shed, political  divisions,  and  natural  barriers.  Speaking  roughly, 
Eastern  Corea  is  a mountainous  ridge  of  which  Western  Corea  is 
but  the  slope. 

No  river  of  any  importance  is  found  inside  the  peninsula  east  of 
these  mountains,  except  the  Nak-tong,  which  drains  the  valley 
formed  by  the  interior  and  the  sea-coast  ranges,  while  on  the  west- 
ward slope  ten  broad  streams  collect  the  tribute  of  their  melted 
snows  to  enrich  the  valleys  of  five  provinces. 

Through  seven  parallels  of  latitude  this  range  fronts  the  sea  of 
Japan  with  a coast  barrier  which,  except  at  Yung-hing  Bay,  is  nearly 
destitute  of  harbors.  Its  timbered  heights  present  a wall  of  living 
green  to  the  mariner  sailing  from  Vladivostok  to  Shanghai. 

Great  differences  of  climate  in  the  same  latitude  are  observed  on 
opposite  sides  of  this  mountain  range,  which  has  various  local  epi- 
thets. From  their  height  and  the  permanence  of  their  winter 
covering,  the  word  “ white  ” forms  an  oft-recurring  part  of  their 
names. 

The  division  of  the  country  into  eight  do,  or  provinces,  which 
are  grouped  in  southern,  central,  and  northern,  is  based  mainly  on 
the  river  basins.  The  rainfall  in  nearly  every  province  finds  an 
outlet  on  its  own  sea-border.  Only  the  western  slopes  of  the  two 
northeastern  provinces  are  exceptions  to  this  rule,  since  they  dis- 
charge part  of  their  waters  into  streams  emptying  beyond  their 


6 


COREA. 


boundaries.  The  Yalu,  and  the  Han — “the  river”— are  the  only 
streams  whose  sources  lie  beyond  their  own  provinces.  In  rare  in- 
stances are  the  rivers  known  by  the  same  word  along  their  whole 
length,  various  local  names  being  applied  by  the  people  of  different 
neighborhoods.  On  the  maps  in  this  work  only  the  name  most 
commonly  given  to  each  stream  near  its  mouth  is  printed. 

In  respect  to  the  sea  basins,  three  provinces  on  the  west  coast 
form  one  side  of  the  depression  called  the  Yellow  Sea  Basin,  of 
which  Northeastern  China  forms  the  opposite  rim.  The  three  east- 
ern do,  or  circuits,  lining  the  Sea  of  Japan,  make  the  concave  in  the 
sea  basin  to  which  Japan  offers  the  corresponding  edge.  The  entire 
northern  boundary  of  the  peninsula  from  sea  to  gulf,  except  where 
the  colossal  peak  Paik-tu  (‘White  Head’)  forms  the  water-shed,  is 
one  vast  valley  in  which  lie  the  basins  of  the  Yalu  and  Tumen. 

Corea  is,  in  reality,  an  island,  as  the  following  description  of 
White  Head  Mountain,  obtained  from  the  Journal  of  the  Chinese 
Ambassador  to  Seoul,  shows.  This  mountain  has  two  summits, 
one  facing  north,  the  other  east.  On  the  top  is  a lake  thirty  n 
around.  In  shape  the  peak  is  that  of  a colossal  white  vase  open  to 
the  sky,  and  fluted  or  scolloped  round  the  edge  like  the  vases  of 
Chinese  porcelain.  Its  crater,  white  on  the  outside,  is  red,  with 
whitish  veins,  inside.  Snow  and  ice  clothe  the  sides,  sometimes  as 
late  as  June.  On  the  side  of  the  north,  there  issues  a runnel,  a 
yard  in  depth,  which  falls  in  a cascade  and  forms  the  source  of  the 
(Tumen)  river.  Three  or  four  ri  from  the  summit  of  the  mountain 
the  stream  divides  into  two  parts ; one  is  the  source  of  the  Yalu 
River. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  to  dwellers  in  the  temperate  zone 
that  the  climate  of  Corea  is  excellent,  bracing  in  the  north,  and  in 
the  south  tempered  by  the  ocean  breezes  of  summer.  The  winters 
in  the  higher  latitudes  are  not  more  rigorous  than  in  the  State  of 
New  York  ; while,  in  the  most  southern,  they  are  as  delightful  as 
those  in  the  Carolinas.  In  so  mountainous  and  sea-girt  a country 
there  are,  of  course,  great  climatic  varieties  even  in  the  same  prov- 
inces. 

As  compared  with  European  countries  of  the  same  latitude, 
Corea  is  much  colder  in  winter  and  hotter  in  summer.  In  the 
north,  the  Tumen  River  is  usually  frozen  during  five  months  in  the 
year.  The  Han  River  at  Seoul  may  be  crossed  on  ice  during  two 
or  three  months.  Even  in  the  southern  provinces,  deep  snows 
cover  the  mountains,  though  the  plains  are  usually  free,  rarely 


THE  COREAN  PENINSULA. 


7 


holding  the  snow  during  a whole  day.  The  lowest  point  to  which 
the  mercury  fell,  in  the  observation  of  the  French  missionaries,  was 
at  the  35th  parallel  of  latitude  8°  and  at  the  37th  parallel  15°  (F.). 
The  most  delightful  seasons  in  the  year  are  spring  and  autumn.  In 
summer,  in  addition  to  the  great  heat,  the  rain  falls  often  in  tor- 
rents that  blockade  the  roads  and  render  travelling  and  transport 
next  to  impossible.  Toward  the  end  of  September  occurs  the  pe- 
riod of  tempests  and  variable  winds. 

A glance  at  the  fauna  of  Corea  suggests  at  once  India,  Europe, 
Massachusetts,  and  Florida.  In  the  forests,  especially  of  the  two 
northern  circuits,  tigers  of  the  largest  size  and  fiercest  aspect 
abound.  When  food  fails  them,  they  attack  human  habitations, 
and  the  annual  list  of  victims  is  very  large.  The  leopard  is  com- 
mon. There  are  several  species  of  deer,  which  furnish  not  only 
hides  and  venison,  but  horns  which,  when  “ in  velvet,”  are  highly 
prized  as  medicine.  In  the  fauna  are  included  bears,  wild  hogs 
and  the  common  pigs  of  stunted  breed,  wild  cats,  badgers,  foxes, 
beavers,  otters,  several  species  of  martens.  The  salamander  is 
found  in  the  streams,  as  in  western  Japan. 

Of  domestic  beasts,  horses  are  very  numerous,  being  mostly  of 
a short,  stunted  breed.  Immense  numbers  of  oxen  are  found  in 
the  south,  furnishing  the  meat  diet  craved  by  the  people  who  eat 
much  more  of  fatty  stuff  than  the  Japanese. 

Goats  are  rare.  Sheep  are  imported  from  China  only  for  sacri- 
ficial purposes.  The  dog  serves  for  food  as  well  as  for  companion- 
ship and  defence.  Of  birds,  the  pheasant,  falcon,  eagle,  crane,  and 
stork,  are  common. 

Corea  has  for  centuries  successfully  carried  out  the  policy  of 
isolation.  Instead  of  a peninsula,  her  rulers  have  striven  to  make 
her  an  inaccessible  island,  and  insulate  her  from  the  shock  of 
change.  She  has  built  not  a Great  Wall  of  masonry,  but  a barrier 
of  sea  and  river-flood,  of  mountain  and  devastated  land,  of  palisades 
and  cordons  of  armed  sentinels.  Frost  and  snow,  storm  and  win- 
ter, she  hails  as  her  allies.  Not  content  with  the  sea-border  she 
desolates  her  shores  lest  they  tempt  the  mariner  to  land.  Between 
her  Chinese  neighbor  and  herself,  she  has  placed  a neutral  space  of 
unplanted,  unoccupied  land.  This  strip  of  forests  and  desolated 
plains,  twenty  leagues  wide,  stretches  between  Corea  and  Manchu- 
ria. To  form  it,  four  cities  and  many  villages  were  suppressed 
three  centuries  ago,  and  left  in  ruins.  The  soil  of  these  solitudes 
is  very  good,  the  roads  easy,  and  the  hills  not  high. 


8 


COREA. 


For  centuries,  only  the  wild  beasts,  fugitives  from  justice,  and 
outlaws  from  both  countries,  have  inhabited  this  fertile  but  forbid- 
den territory.  Occasionally,  borderers  would  cultivate  portions  of 
it,  but  gather  the  produce  by  night  or  stealthily  by  day,  venturing 
on  it  as  prisoners  would  step  over  the  “dead  line.”  Of  late  years, 
the  Chinese  Government  has  respected  the  neutrality  of  this  barrier 
less  and  less.  One  of  those  recurring  historical  phenomena  pecu- 
liar to  Manchuria — the  increase  and  pressure  of  population — has 
within  a generation  caused  the  occupation  of  large  portions  of  this 
neutral  strip.  Parts  of  it  have  been  surveyed  and  staked  out  by 
Chinese  surveyors,  and  the  Corean  Government  has  been  too  feeble 
to  prevent  the  occupation.  Though  no  towns  or  villages  are  marked 
on  the  map  of  this  “No-man’s  land,”  yet  already,  a considerable 
number  of  small  settlements  exist  upon  it. 

As  this  once  neutral  territory  is  being  gradually  obliterated,  so 
the  former  lines  of  palisades  and  stone  walls  on  the  northern  bor- 
der which,  two  centuries  and  more  ago,  were  strong,  high,  guarded 
and  kept  in  repair,  have  year  by  year,  during  a long  era  of  peace, 
been  suffered  to  fall  into  decay.  They  exist  no  longer,  and  should 
be  erased  from  the  maps. 

The  pressure  of  population  in  Manchuria  upon  the  Corean  bor- 
der is  a portentous  phenomenon.  For  Manchuria,  which  for  ages 
past  has,  like  a prolific  hive,  swarmed  off  masses  of  humanity  into 
other  lands,  seems  again  preparing  to  send  off  a fresh  cloud.  Al- 
ready her  millions  press  upon  her  neighbors  for  room. 

The  clock  of  history  seems  once  more  about  to  strike,  perhaps 
to  order  again  another  dynasty  on  the  oft-changed  throne  of  China. 

From  mysterious  Mongolia,  have  gone  out  in  the  past  the  vari- 
ous hordes  called  Tartars,  or  Tatars,  Huns,  Turks,  Kitans,  Mongols, 
Manchius.  Perhaps  her  loins  also  are  already  swelling  with  a new 
progeny.  This  marvellous  region  gave  forth  the  man-children  who 
destroyed  the  Pioman  Empire  ; who  extinguished  Christianity  in 
Asia  and  Africa,  and  nearly  in  Europe  ; who,  after  conquering  India 
and  China  threatened  Christendom,  and  holding  Russia  for  two 
centuries,  created  the  largest  empire  ever  known  on  earth ; and 
finally  reared  “ the  most  improvable  race  in  Asia  ” that  now  holds 
the  throne  and  empire  of  China. 

Cho-sen  since  acting  the  hermit  policy  of  ancient  Egypt  and  me- 
diaeval China,  has  preserved  two  loopholes  at  Fusan  and  Ai-chiu, 
(he  former  on  the  sea  toward  Japan,  and  the  latter  in  the  north- 
west, on  the  Chinese  border.  What  in  time  of  peace  is  a needle’s 


THE  COREAN  PENINSULA. 


9 


eye,  is  in  time  of  war  a flood-gate  for  enemies.  From  the  west,  the 
invading  armies  of  China  have  again  and  again  marched  around 
over  the  Gulf  of  Liao  Tung  and  entered  the  peninsula  to  plunder 
and  to  conquer,  while  Chinese  fleets  from  Shan-tung  have  over  and 
over  again  arched  their  sails  in  the  Yellow  Sea  to  furl  them  again 
in  Corean  Rivers.  From  the  east,  the  Japanese  have  pushed  across 
the  sea  to  invade  Corea  as  enemies,  to  help  as  allies  against  China, 
to  levy  tribute  and  go  away  enriched,  or  anon  to  send  their  grain- 
laden ships  to  their  starving  neighbors. 

From  a political  point  of  view  the  geographical  position  of  this 
country  is  most  unfortunate.  Placed  between  two  rival  nations, 
aliens  in  blood,  temper,  and  policy,  Cho-sen  has  been  the  rich  grist 
between  the  upper  and  nether  millstones  of  China  and  Japan.  Out 
of  the  north,  rising  from  the  vast  plains  at  Manchuria,  the  conquer- 
ing hordes,  on  their  way  to  the  prize  lying  south  of  the  Great  Wall, 
have  over  and  over  again  descended  on  Corean  soil  to  make  it  their 
granary.  From  the  pre-historic  forays  of  the  tribes  beyond  the 
Sungari,  to  the  last  new  actors  on  the  scene,  the  Russians,  who 
stand  with  their  feet  on  the  Tumen,  looking  over  the  border  on  her 
helpless  neighbor,  Corea  has  been  threatened  or  devastated  by  hex- 
eager  enemies. 

Nevertheless  Corea  has  always  l-emained  Corea,  a separate 
country  ; and  the  people  are  Coreans,  more  allied  to  the  Japanese 
than  the  Chinese,  yet  in  language,  politics,  and  social  customs,  dif- 
ferent fi-om  eithei-.  As  Ireland  is  not  England  or  Scotland,  neither 
is  Cho-sen  China  nor  Japan. 

In  her  boasted  histoi-y  of  “four  thousand  years,”  the  little 
kingdom  has  too  often  been  the  Ireland  of  China,  so  far  as  misgov- 
ernment  on  the  one  side,  and  fretfxd  and  spasmodic  resistance  on 
the  other,  are  considered.  Yet  ancient  Corea  has  also  been  an 
Ireland  to  Japan,  in  the  better  sense  of  giving  to  her  the  art,  let- 
ters, science,  and  ethics  of  continental  civilization.  As  of  old,  went 
forth  from  Tara’s  halls  to  the  Bi-itish  Isles  and  the  continent,  the 
bal'd  and  the  monk  to  elevate  and  civilize  Europe  with  the  culture 
of  Rome  and  the  religion  of  Christianity,  so  for  centuries  thei-e 
crossed  the  sea  from  the  peninsula  a stream  of  scholars,  artists, 
and  missionai-ies  who  brought  to  Japan  the  social  culture  of  Cho- 
sen, the  litei-ature  of  China,  and  the  religion  of  India.  A grateful 
bonze  of  Japan  has  well  told  the  story  of  Corea’s  part  in  the  civili- 
zation of  his  native  counti-y  in  a book  entitled  “Px-ecious  Jewels 
from  a Neighbor  Country. ' 


10 


COREA. 


Corea  fulfils  one  of  the  first  conditions  of  national  safety  in 
having  “scientific  frontiers,”  or  adequate  natural  boundaries  of 
river,  mountain,  and  sea.  But  now  what  was  once  barrier  is 
highway.  What  was  once  the  safety  of  isolation,  is  now  the  weak- 
ness of  the  recluse.  Steam  has  made  the  water  a surer  path  than 
land,  and  Japan,  once  the  pupil  and  anon  the  conqueror  of  the 
little  kingdom,  has  in  these  last  days  become  the  helpful  friend  of 
Corea’s  people,  and  the  opener  of  the  long-sealed  peninsula. 

Already  the  friendly  whistle  of  Japanese  steamers  is  heard  in 
the  harbors  of  two  ports  in  which  are  trading  settlements.  At 
Fusan  and  Gensan,  the  mikado’s  subjects  hold  commercial  rivalry 
with  the  Coreans,  and  through  these  two  loopholes  the  hermits  of 
the  peninsula  catch  glimpses  of  the  outer  world  that  must  waken 
thought  and  create  a desire  to  enter  the  family  of  nations.  The  ill 
fame  of  the  native  character  for  inhospitality  and  hatred  of  foreign- 
ers belongs  not  to  the  people,  nor  is  truly  characteristic  of  them. 
It  inheres  in  the  government  which  curses  country  and  people,  and 
iu  the  ruling  classes  who,  like  those  in  Old  Japan,  do  not  wish  the 
peasantry  to  see  the  inferiority  of  those  who  govern  them. 

Corea  cannot  long  remain  a hermit  nation.  The  near  future 
will  see  her  open  to  the  world.  Commerce  and  pure  Christianity 
w'ill  enter  to  elevate  her  people,  and  the  student  of  science,  ethnol- 
ogy, and  language  will  find  a tempting  field  on  which  shall  be 
solved  many  a yet  obscure  problem.  The  forbidden  land  of  to-day 
is,  in  many  striking  points  of  comparison,  the  analogue  of  Old 
Japan.  While  the  last  of  the  hermit  nations  awaits  some  gallant 
Perry  of  the  future,  we  may  hope  that  the  same  brilliant  path  of 
progress  on  which  the  Sunrise  Kingdom  has  entered,  awaits  the 
Land  of  Morning  Calm. 

We  add  a postscript.  As  our  manuscript  turns  to  print,  we 
hear  of  the  treaty  successfully  negotiated  by  Commodore  Shufeldt, 


CHAPTER  II. 


THE  OLD  KINGDOM  OF  CHO-SEN. 

Like  almost  every  country  on  earth,  whose  history  is  known, 
Corea  is  inhabited  by  a race  that  is  not  aboriginal.  The  present 
occupiers  of  the  land  drove  out  or  conquered  the  people  whom  they 
found  upon  it.  They  are  the  descendants  of  a stock  whose  ances- 
tral seats  were  beyond  those  ever  white  mountains  which  buttress 
the  northern  frontier. 

Nevertheless,  for  the  origins  of  their  national  history,  we  must 
look  to  one  whom  the  Coreans  of  this  nineteenth  century  still  call 
the  founder  of  their  social  order.  The  scene  of  his  labors  is  laid 
partly  within  the  peninsula,  and  chiefly  in  Manchuria,  on  the  well 
watered  plains  of  Shing-king,  formerly  called  Liao  Tung. 

The  third  dynasty  of  the  thirty-three  or  thirty-four  lines  of 
rulers  who  have  filled  the  oft-changed  throne  of  China,  is  known 
in  history  as  the  Shang  (or  Yin).  It  began  b.c.  1766,  and  after  a 
line  of  twenty-eight  sovereigns,  ended  in  Chow  Sin,  who  died  b.c. 
1122.  He  was  an  unscrupulous  tyrant,  and  has  been  called  “the 
Nero  of  China.” 

One  of  his  nobles  was  Ki  Tsze,  viscount  of  Ki  (or  Latinized, 
Iiicius).  He  was  a profound  scholar  and  author  of  important  por- 
tions of  the  classic  book,  entitled  the  Shu  King.  He  was  a coun- 
sellor of  the  tyrant  king,  and  being  a man  of  upright  character, 
was  greatly  scandalized  at  the  conduct  of  his  licentious  and  cruel 
master. 

The  sage  remonstrated  with  his  sovereign  hoping  to  turn  him 
from  his  evil  ways.  In  this  noble  purpose  he  was  assisted  by  two 
other  men  of  rank  named  Pi  Kan  and  Wei  Tsze.  All  their  efforts 
were  of  no  avail,  and  finding  the  reformation  of  the  tyrant  hopeless, 
Wei  Tsze,  though  a kinsman  of  the  king,  voluntarily  exiled  him- 
self from  the  realm,  while  Pi  Kan,  also  a relative  of  Chow  Sin,  was 
cruelly  murdered  in  the  following  manner  : 

The  king,  mocking  the  wise  counsellor,  cried  out,  “They  say 


12 


COREA. 


that  a sage  has  seven  orifices  to  his  heart ; let  us  see  if  this  is  the 
case  with  Pi  Kan.  ” This  Chinese  monarch,  himself  so  much  like 
Herod  in  other  respects,  had  a wife  who  in  her  character  re- 
sembled Herodias.  It  was  she  who  expressed  the  bloody  wish  to 
see  the  heart  of  Pi  Kan.  By  the  imperial  order  the  sage  was  put  to 
death  and  his  body  ripped  open.  His  heart,  torn  out,  was  brought 
before  the  cruel  pair.  Ki  Tsze,  the  third  counsellor,  was  cast  into 
prison. 

Meanwhile  the  people  and  nobles  of  the  empire  were  rising  in 
arms  against  the  tyrant  whose  misrule  had  become  intolerable. 
They  were  led  on  by  one  Wu  Wang,  who  crossed  the  Yellow  River, 
and  met  the  tyrant  on  the  plains  of  Muh.  In  the  great  battle  that 
ensued,  the  army  of  Chow  Sin  was  defeated.  Escaping  to  his  pal- 
ace, and  ordering  it  to  be  set  on  fire,  he  perished  in  the  flames. 

Among  the  conqueror’s  first  acts  was  the  erection  of  a memorial 
mound  over  the  grave  of  Pi  Kan,  and  an  order  that  Ki  Tsze  should 
be  released  from  prison,  and  appointed  Prime  Minister  of  the 
realm. 

But  the  sage’s  loyalty  exceeded  his  gratitude.  In  spite  of  the 
magnanimity  of  the  offer,  Ki  Tsze  frankly  told  the  conqueror  that 
duty  to  his  deposed  sovereign  forbade  him  serving  one  whom  he 
could  not  but  regard  as  a usurper.  He  then  departed  into  the 
regions  lying  to  the  northeast.  With  him  went  several  thousand 
Chinese  emigrants,  mostly  the  remnant  of  the  defeated  army,  now 
exiles,  who  made  him  their  king.  It  is  not  probable  that  in  his 
distant  realm  he  received  investment  from  or  paid  tribute  to  King 
Wu.  Such  an  act  would  be  a virtual  acknowledgment  of  the 
righteousness  of  rebellion  and  revolution.  It  would  prove  that  the 
sage  forgave  the  usurper.  Some  Chinese  historians  state  that  Ki 
Tsze  accepted  a title  from  Wu  Wang.  Others  maintain  that  the 
investiture  “ was  a euphemism  to  shield  the  character  of  the  ances- 
tor of  Confucius.”  The  migration  of  Ki  Tsze  and  his  followers 
took  place  1122  b.c. 

Ed  Tsze  began  vigorously  to  reduce  the  aboriginal  people  of  his 
realm  to  order.  He  policed  the  borders,  gave  laws  to  his  subjects, 
and  gradually  introduced  the  principles  and  practice  of  Chinese 
etiquette  and  polity  throughout  his  domain.  Previous  to  his  time 
the  people  lived  in  caves  and  holes  in  the  ground,  dressed  in  leaves, 
and  were  destitute  of  manners,  morals,  agriculture  and  cooking, 
being  ignorant  savages.  The  divine  being,  Dan  Kun,  had  partially 
civilized  them,  but  Kishi,  who  brought  5,000  Chinese  colonists  with 


THE  OLD  KINGDOM  OF  CHO-SEN.  13 

him,  taught  the  aborigines  letters,  reading  and  writing,  medicine, 
many  of  the  arts,  and  the  political  principles  of  feudal  China.  The 
Japanese  pronounce  the  founder’s  name  Kislii,  and  the  Coreans 
Kei-tsa  or  Kysse. 

The  name  conferred  by  Kishi,  the  civilizer,  upon  his  new  domain 
is  that  now  in  use  by  the  modern  Coreans — Cho-sen  or  Morning 
Calm. 

This  ancient  kingdom  of  Cho-sen,  according  to  the  Coreans, 
comprised  the  modern  Chinese  province  of  Shing-king,  which  is 
now  about  the  size  of  Ohio,  having  an  area  of  43,000  square  miles, 
and  a population  of  8,000,000  souls.  It  is  entirely  outside  and 
west  of  the  limits  of  modern  Corea. 

In  addition  to  the  space  already  named,  the  fluctuating  bound- 
aries of  this  ancient  kingdom  embraced  at  later  periods  much  terri- 
tory beyond  the  Liao  Eiver  toward  Peking,  and  inside  the  line  now 
marked  by  the  Great  Wall.  To  the  east  the  modern  province  of 
Ping-an  was  included  in  Cho-sen,  the  Ta-tong  Eiver  being  its  most 
stable  boundary.  “ Scientific  frontiers,”  though  sought  for  in  those 
ancient  times,  were  rather  ideal  than  hard  and  fast.  With  all  due 
allowance  for  elastic  boundaries,  we  may  say  that  ancient  Cho-sen 
lay  chiefly  within  the  Liao  Tung  peninsula  and  the  Corean  province 
of  Ping-an,  that  the  Liao  and  the  Ta-tong  Eivers  enclosed  it,  and 
that  its  northern  border  lay  along  the  42d  parallel  of  latitude. 

The  descendants  of  Ki  Tsze  are  said  to  have  ruled  the  couutry 
until  the  fourth  century  before  the  Christian  era.  Their  names 
and  deeds  are  alike  unknown,  but  it  is  stated  that  there  were  forty- 
one  generations,  making  a blood-line  of  eleven  hundred  and  thirty- 
one  years.  The  line  came  to  an  end  in  9 a.d.,  though  they  had  lost 
power  long  before  this  time. 

By  common  consent  of  Chinese  and  native  tradition,  Ki  Tsze 
is  the  founder  of  Corean  social  order.  If  this  tradition  be  true, 
the  civilization  of  the  hermit  nation  nearly  equals,  in  point  of  time, 
that  of  China,  and  is  one  of  the  very  oldest  in  the  world,  being 
contemporaneous  with  that  of  Egypt  and  Chaldea.  It  is  certain 
that  the  natives  plume  themselves  upon  their  antiquity,  and  that 
the  particular  vein  of  Corean  arrogance  and  contempt  for  western 
civilization  is  kindred  to  that  of  the  Hindoos  and  Chinese.  From 
the  lofty  height  of  thirty  centuries  of  tradition,  which  to  them  is 
unchallenged  history,  they  look  with  pitying  contempt  upon  the 
upstart  nations  of  yesterday,  who  live  beyond  the  sea  under  some 
other  heaven.  When  the  American  Admiral,  John  Eodgers,  iu 


14 


COREA. 


1871,  entered  the  Han  River  with  his  fleet,  hoping  to  make  a treaty, 
he  was  warned  off  with  the  repeated  answer  that  “ Corea  was  satis- 
fied with  her  civilization  of  four  thousand  years,  and  wanted  no 
other.”  The  perpetual  text  of  all  letters  from  Seoul  to  Peking,  of 
all  proclamations  against  Christianity,  of  all  death-warrants  of  con- 
verts, and  of  the  oft-repeated  refusals  to  open  trade  with  foreign- 
el's  is  the  praise  of  Ki  Tsze  as  the  founder  of  the  virtue  and  order 
of  “ the  little  kingdom,”  and  the  loyalty  of  Corea  to  his  doctrines. 

In  the  letter  of  the  king  to  the  Chinese  emperor,  dated  Novem- 
ber 25,  1801,  the  language  following  the  opening  sentence  is  as 
given  below : 

“His  Imperial  Majesty  knows  that  since  the  time  when  the 
remnants  of  the  army  of  the  Yin  dynasty  migrated  to  the  East 
[1122  b.c.],  the  little  kingdom  has  always  been  distinguished  by 
its  exactness  in  fulfilling  all  that  the  rites  prescribe,  justice  and 
loyalty,  and  in  general  by  fidelity  to  her  duties,”  etc.,  etc. 

In  a royal  proclamation  against  the  Christian  religion,  dated 
January  25,  1802,  occurs  the  following  sentence  : 

“ The  kingdom  granted  to  Ki  Tsze  has  enjoyed  great  peace  dur- 
ing four  hundred  years  [since  the  establishment  of  the  ruling  dy- 
nasty], in  all  the  extent  of  its  territory  of  two  thousand  ri  and 
more,”  etc. 

These  are  but  specimens  from  official  documents  which  illus- 
trate their  pride  in  antiquity,  and  the  reverence  in  which  their  first 
law  giver  is  held  by  the  Coreans. 

Nevertheless,  though  Kishi  may  possibly  be  called  the  founder 
of  ancient  Cho-sen,  and  her  greatest  legislator,  yet  he  can  scarcely 
be  deemed  the  ancestor  of  the  people  now  inhabiting  the  Corean 
peninsula.  For  the  modem  Coreans  are  descended  from  a stock 
of  later  origin,  and  quite  different  from  the  ancient  Cho-senese. 
From  Ki  Tsze,  however,  sprang  a line  of  kings,  and  it  is  possible 
that  his  blood  courses  in  some  of  the  noble  families  of  the  king- 
dom. 

As  the  most  ancient  traditions  of  Japan  and  Corea  are  based 
on  Chinese  writings,  there  is  no  discrepancy  in  their  accounts  of 
the  beginning  of  Cho-sen  history. 

Ki  Tsze  and  his  colonists  were  simply  the  first  immigrants  to 
the  country  northeast  of  China,  of  whom  history  speaks.  He 
found  other  people  on  the  soil  before  him,  concerning  whose  origin 
nothing  is  known  in  writing.  The  land  was  not  densely  populated, 
but  of  their  numbers,  or  time  of  coming  of  the  aborigines,  or 


THE  OLD  KINGDOM  OF  CHO-SEN. 


15 


whether  of  the  same  race  as  the  tribes  in  the  outlying  islands  of 
Japan,  no  means  yet  in  our  power  can  give  answer. 

Even  the  story  of  Ki  Tsze,  when  critically  examined,  does  not 
satisfy  the  rigid  demands  of  modem  research.  Mayers,  in  his 
“Chinese  Reader’s  Manual”  (p.  369),  does  not  concede  the  first 
part  of  the  Chow  dynasty  (1122  b.c.-255  a.d.)  to  be  more  than 
semi-historical,  and  places  the  beginning  of  authentic  Chinese  his- 
tory between  781  and  719  b.c.,  over  four  centuries  after  Ki  Tsze’s 
time.  Ross  (p.  11)  says  that  “the  story  of  Kitsu  is  not  impossible, 
but  it  is  to  be  received  with  suspicion.”  It  is  not  at  all  improbable 
that  the  Cho-sen  of  Ki  Tsze’s  founding  lay  in  the  Sungari  valley,  and 
was  extended  southward  at  a later  period. 

It  is  not  for  us  to  dissect  too  critically  the  tradition  concerning 
the  founder  of  Corea,  nor  to  locate  exactly  the  scene  of  his  labors. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  general  history,  prior  to  the  Christian  era, 
of  the  country  whose  story  we  are  to  tell,  divides  itself  into  that 
of  the  north,  or  Cho-sen,  and  that  of  the  south,  below  the  Ta-tong 
River,  in  which  region  three  kingdoms  arose  and  flourished,  with 
varying  fortunes,  during  a millennium. 

We  return  now  to  the  well-established  history  of  Cho-sen.  The 
Great  Wall  of  China  was  built  by  Cheng,  the  founder  of  the  Tsin 
dynasty  (b.c.  255-209),  who  began  the  work  in  239  a.d.  Before 
his  time,  China  had  been  a feudal  conglomerate  of  petty,  warring 
kingdoms.  He,  by  the  power  of  the  swrord,  consolidated  them  into 
one  homogeneous  empire  and  took  the  title  of  the  “First  Univer- 
sal Emperor”  (Shi  Whang  Ti).  Not  content  with  sweeping  away 
feudal  institutions,  and  building  the  Great  Wall,  he  ordered  all  the 
literary  records  and  the  ancient  scriptures  of  Confucius  to  be  de- 
stroyed by  fire.  Yet  the  empire,  whose  perpetuity  he  thought  to 
secure  by  building  a rampart  against  the  barbarians  without,  and 
by  destroying  the  material  for  rebellious  thought  within,  fell  to 
pieces  soon  after,  at  his  death,  when  left  to  the  care  of  a foolish 
son,  and  China  was  plunged  into  bloody  anarchy  again. 

One  of  these  petty  kingdoms  that  arose  on  the  mins  of  the  em- 
pire was  that  of  Yen,  which  began  to  encroach  upon  its  eastern 
neighbor  Cho-sen. 

In  the  later  days  of  the  Ki  Tsze  family,  great  anarchy  prevailed, 
and  the  last  kings  of  the  line  were  unable  to  keep  their  domain  in 
order,  or  guard  its  boundaries. 

Taking  advantage  of  its  weakness,  the  king  of  Yen  began  boldly 
and  openly  to  seize  upon  Cho-sen  territory,  annexing  thousands  of 


16 


COREA. 


square  miles  to  his  own  domain.  By  a spasmodic  effort,  the  suc- 
cessors of  Ki  Tsze  again  became  ascendant,  reannexing  a large 
part  of  the  territory  of  Yen,  and  receiving  great  numbers  of  her 
people,  who  had  fled  from  civil  war  in  China,  within  the  borders  of 
Cho-sen  for  safety  and  peace. 

Thus  the  spoiler  was  spoiled,  but,  later  on,  the  kingdom  of  Yen 
was  again  set  up,  and  the  rival  states  fixed  their  boundaries  and 
made  peace.  The  Han  dynasty  in  b.c.  206  claimed  the  imperial 
power,  and  sent  a summons  to  the  king  of  Yen  to  become  vassal. 
On  his  refusing,  the  Chinese  emperor  despatched  an  army  against 
him,  defeated  his  forces  in  battle,  extinguished  his  dynasty,  and  an- 
nexed his  kingdom. 

One  of  the  survivors  of  this  revolt,  named  Wei-man,  with  one 
thousand  of  his  followers,  fled  to  the  east.  Dressing  themselves 
like  wild  savages  they  entered  Cho-sen,  pretending,  with  Gibeoni- 
tish  craft,  that  they  had  come  from  the  far  west,  and  begged  to  be 
received  as  subjects. 

Kijun,  the  king,  like  another  Joshua,  believing  their  profes- 
sions, welcomed  them  and  made  their  leader  a vassal  of  high  rank, 
with  the  title  of  ‘ Guardian  of  the  Western  Frontier.’  He  also  set 
apart  a large  tract  of  land  for  his  salary  and  support. 

In  his  post  at  the  west,  Wei-man  played  the  traitor,  and  collect- 
ing a number  of  his  former  countrymen  from  the  Yen  province, 
suddenly  sent  to  Kijun  a messenger,  informing  him  that  a large 
Chinese  army  of  the  conquering  Han  was  about  to  invade  Clio-sen. 
At  the  same  time,  he  suggested  that  he  should  be  called  to  the 
royal  side  and  be  made  Protector  of  the  Capital.  His  desire  being 
granted,  he  hastened  with  his  forces  and  suddenly  appearing  before 
the  royal  castle,  attacked  it.  Kijun  was  beaten,  and  fled  by  sea, 
escaping  in  a boat  to  the  southern  end  of  the  peninsula. 

Wei-man  then  proclaimed  himself  King  of  Cho-sen,  194  b.c.  He 
set  out  on  a career  of  conquest  and  seized  several  of  the  neighbor- 
ing provinces,  and  Cho-sen  again  expanded  her  boundaries  to  cover 
an  immense  area.  Wei-man  built  a city  somewhere  east  of  the  Ta- 
tong  Kiver.  It  was  named  Wang-hien. 

Two  provinces  of  modern  Corea  were  thus  included  within  Cho- 
sen at  this  date.  The  newT  kingdom  grew  in  wealth,  power,  and 
intelligence.  Many  thousands  of  the  Chinese  gentry,  fleeing  before 
the  conquering  arms  of  the  Han  “usurpers,”  settled  within  the  lim- 
its of  Cho-sen,  adding  greatly  to  its  prosperity. 

During  the  reign  of  Yukio  (Chinese,  Yow  Jin),  the  grandson  of 


THE  OLD  KINGDOM  OF  CHO-SEN. 


17 


Wei-man,  he  received  a summons  to  become  vassal  to  the  Chinese 
emperor,  who  sublimely  declared  that  henceforward  the  eastern 
frontier  of  China  should  be  the  Ta-tong  River — thus  virtually  wip- 
ing out  Cho-sen  with  a proclamation.  In  b.c.  109,  a Chinese  am- 
bassador sailed  over  from  China,  entered  the  Ta-tong  River,  and 
visited  Yukio  in  his  castle.  He  plead  in  vain  with  Yukio  to  render 
homage  to  his  master. 

Nevertheless,  to  show  his  respect  for  the  emperor  and  his  envoy, 
Yukio  sent  an  escort  to  accompany  the  latter  on  his  way.  The 
sullen  Chinaman,  angry  at  his  defeat,  accepted  the  safe  conduct 
of  the  Cho-sen  troops  until  beyond  the  Ta-tong  River,  and  then 
treacherously  put  their  chief  to  death.  Hurrying  back  to  his  mas- 
ter, he  glossed  over  his  defeat,  and  boasted  of  his  perfidious  murder. 
He  was  rewarded  with  the  appointment  of  the  governorship  of  Liao 
Tung. 

Smarting  at  the  insult  and  menace  of  this  act,  Yukio,  raising  an 
army,  marched  to  the  west  and  slew  the  traitor.  Having  thus  un- 
furled the  standard  of  defiance  against  the  mighty  Han  dynasty,  he 
returned  to  his  castle,  and  awaited  with  anxious  preparation  the 
coming  of  the  invading  hosts  which  he  knew  would  be  hurled  upon 
him  from  China. 

The  avenging  expedition,  that  was  to  carry  the  banners  of  China 
farther  toward  the  sunrise  than  ever  before,  was  despatched  both 
by  land  and  sea,  b.c.  108.  The  horse  and  foot  soldiers  took  the 
land  route  around  the  head  of  Liao  Tung  Gulf,  crossed  on  the  ice 
of  the  Yalu  River,  and  marched  south  to  the  Ta-tong,  where  the 
Cho-sen  men  attacked  their  van  and  scattered  it. 

The  fleet  sailed  over  from  Shantung,  and  landed  a force  of 
several  thousand  men  on  the  Corean  shore,  in  February  or  March, 
b.c.  107.  Without  waiting  for  the  entire  army  to  penetrate  the 
country,  Yukio  attacked  the  advance  guards  and  drove  them  to 
the  mountains  in  disorder. 

Diplomacy  was  now  tried,  and  a representative  of  the  emperor 
was  sent  to  treat  with  Yukio.  The  latter  agreed  to  yield  and  be- 
come vassal,  but  had  no  confidence  in  the  general  whom  he  had 
just  defeated.  His  memory  of  Chinese  perfidy  was  still  so  fresh, 
that  he  felt  unable  to  trust  himself  to  his  recently  humbled  ene- 
mies, and  the  negotiations  ended  in  failure.  As  usual,  with  the 
unsuccessful,  the  Chinaman  lost  his  head. 

Recourse  was  again  had  to  the  sword.  The  Chinese  crossed 
the  Ta-tong  River  on  the  north,  and  defeating  the  Cho-sen  armv, 
2 


18 


COREA. 


marched  to  the  king’s  capital,  and  laid  siege  to  it  in  conjunction 
with  the  naval  forces.  In  spite  of  their  superior  numbers,  the  in- 
vaders were  many  months  vainly  beleaguering  the  fortress.  Yet, 
though  the  garrison  wasted  daily,  the  king  would  not  yield. 
Knowing  that  defeat,  with  perhaps  a cruel  massacre,  awaited  them, 
four  Cho-sen  men,  awaiting  their  opportunity,  during  the  fighting, 
discharged  their  weapons  at  Yukio,  and  leaving  him  dead,  opened 
the  gates  of  the  citadel,  and  the  Chinese  entered. 

With  the  planting  of  the  Han  banners  on  the  city  walls,  b.c. 
107,  the  existence  of  the  kingdom  of  Cho-sen  came  to  an  end. 
Henceforth,  for  several  centuries,  Liao  Tung  and  the  land  now  com- 
prised within  the  two  northwestern  provinces  of  Corea,  were  parts 
of  China. 

The  conquered  territory  was  at  once  divided  into  four  provinces, 
two  of  which  comprised  that  part  of  Corea  north  of  the  Ta-tong 
River.  The  other  two  were  in  Liao  Tung,  occupying  its  eastern 
and  its  western  half.  Within  the  latter  was  the  district  of  Kokorai, 
or  Kaokuli,  at  whose  history  we  shall  now  glance. 


Coin  of  Modern  Ch3-sen.  " Cho-sen,  Current  Treasure.1 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE  FUYU  RACE  AND  THEIR  MIGRATIONS. 

Somewhere  north  of  that  vast  region  watered  by  the  Sungari 
River,  itself  only  a tributary  to  the  Amur,  there  existed,  according 
to  Chinese  tradition,  in  very  ancient  times,  a petty  kingdom  called 
Korai,  or  To-li.  Out  of  this  kingdom  sprang  the  founder  of  the 
Corean  race.  Slightly  altering  names,  we  may  say  in  the  phrase  of 
Genesis:  “Out  of  Korai  went  forth  Ko  and  builded  Corea,” 
though  what  may  be  sober  fact  is  wrapped  up  in  the  following 
fantastic  legend. 

Long,  long  ago,  in  the  kingdom  called  To-li,  or  Korai  (so  pro- 
nounced, though  the  characters  are  not  those  for  the  Korai  of  later 
days),  there  lived  a king,  in  whose  harem  was  a waiting-maid.  One 
day,  while  her  master  was  absent  on  a hunt,  she  saw,  floating  in  the 
atmosphere,  a glistening  vapor  which  entered  her  bosom.  This 
ray  or  tiny  cloud  seemed  to  be  about  as  big  as  an  egg.  Under  its 
influence,  she  conceived. 

The  king,  on  his  return,  discovered  her  condition,  and  made 
up  his  mind  to  put  her  to  death.  Upon  her  explanation,  how- 
ever, he  agreed  to  spare  her  life,  but  at  once  lodged  her  in  prison. 

The  child  that  was  born  proved  to  be  a boy,  which  the  king 
promptly  cast  among  the  pigs.  But  the  swine  breathed  into  his 
nostrils  and  the  baby  lived.  He  was  next  put  among  the  horses, 
but  they  also  nourished  him  with  their  breath,  and  he  lived. 
Struck  by  tills  evident  will  of  Heaven,  that  the  child  should  live, 
the  king  listened  to  its  mother’s  prayers,  and  permitted  her  to 
nourish  and  train  him  in  the  palace.  He  grew  up  to  be  a fair 
youth,  full  of  energy,  and  skilful  in  archery.  He  was  named 
“Light  of  the  East,”  and  the  king  appointed  him  Master  of  his 
stables. 

One  day,  while  out  hunting,  the  king  permitted  him  to  give  an 
exhibition  of  his  skill.  This  he  did,  drawing  bow  with  such  un- 
erring aim  that  the  royal  jealousy  was  kindled,  and  he  thought  of 


20 


/ 


COREA. 


nothing  but  how  to  compass  the  destruction  of  the  youth.  Know- 
ing that  he  would  be  killed  if  he  remained  in  the  royal  service, 
the  young  archer  fled  the  kingdom.  He  directed  his  course  to 
the  southeast,  and  came  to  the  borders  of  a vast  and  impassable 
river,  most  probably  the  Sungari.  Knowing  his  pursuers  were 
not  far  behind  him  he  cried  out,  in  a great  strait, 


The  Founder  of  Fuyu  Crossing  the  Sungari  River.  (Drawn  by  G.  Hashimoto,  Yedo,  1853.) 


“ Alas ! shall  I,  who  am  the  child  of  the  Sun,  and  the  grandson 
of  the  Yellow  River,  be  stopped  here  powerless  by  this  stream.” 
So  saying  he  shot  his  arrows  at  the  water. 

Immediately  all  the  fishes  of  the  river  assembled  together  in 
a thick  shoal,  making  so  dense  a mass  that  their  bodies  became  a 
floating  bridge.  On  this,  the  young  prince  (and  according  to  the 


THE  FUYU  RACE  AND  THEIR  MIGRATIONS. 


21 


Japanese  version  of  the  legend,  three  others  with  him),  crossed 
the  stream  and  safely  reached  the  further  side.  No  sooner  did  he 
set  foot  on  land  than  his  pursuers  appeared  on  the  opposite  shore, 
when  the  bridge  of  fishes  at  once  dissolved.  His  three  compan- 
ions stood  ready  to  act  as  his  guides.  One  of  the  three  was 
dressed  in  a costume  made  of  sea-weeds,  a second  in  hempen  gar- 
ments, and  a third  in  embroidered  robes.  Arriving  at  their 
city,  he  became  the  king  of  the  tribe  and  kingdom  of  Fuyu, 
which  lay  in  the  fertile  and  well-watered  region  between  the  Sun- 
gari River  and  the  Shan  Alyn,  or  Ever- White  Mountains.  It  ex- 
tended several  hundred  miles  east  and  west  of  a line  drawn  south- 
ward through  Kirin,  the  larger  half  lying  on  the  west. 

Fuyu,  as  described  by  a Chinese  writer  of  the  Eastern  Han 
dynasty  (25  b.c.-190  a.d.),  was  a land  of  fertile  soil,  in  which 
“the  five  cereals”  (wheat,  rice,  millet,  beans,  and  sorghum)  could 
be  raised.  The  men  were  tall,  muscular,  and  brave,  and  withal 
generous  and  courteous  to  each  other.  Their  arms  were  bows  and 
arrows,  swords,  and  lances.  They  were  skilful  horsemen.  Their 
ornaments  were  large  pearls,  and  cut  jewels  of  red  jade.  They 
made  spirits  from  grain,  and  were  fond  of  drinking  bouts,  feast- 
ing, dancing,  and  singing.  With  many  drinkers  there  were  few 
cups.  The  latter  were  rinsed  in  a bowl  of  water,  and  with  great 
ceremony  passed  from  one  to  another.  They  ate  with  chopsticks, 
out  of  bowls,  helping  themselves  out  of  large  dishes. 

It  is  a striking  fact  that  the  Fuyu  people,  though  living  so  far 
from  China,  were  dwellers  in  cities  which  they  surrounded  with 
palisades  or  walls  of  stakes.  They  lived  in  wooden  houses,  and 
stored  their  crops  in  granaries. 

In  the  administration  of  justice,  they  were  severe  and  prompt. 
They  had  regular  prisons,  and  fines  were  part  of  then  legal  sys- 
tem. The  thief  must  repay  twelve-fold.  Adultery  was  punished 
by  the  death  of  both  parties.  Further  revenge  might  be  taken 
upon  the  woman  by  exposing  her  dead  body  on  a mound.  Cer- 
tain relatives  of  a criminal  were  denied  burial  in  a coffin.  The 
other  members  of  the  family  of  a criminal  suffering  capital  pun- 
ishment were  sold  as  slaves.  Murderers  were  buried  alive  with 
their  victims. 

The  Fuyu  religion  was  a worship  of  Heaven,  their  greatest 
festival  being  in  the  eleventh  month,  when  they  met  joyfully  to- 
gether, laying  aside  all  grudges  and  quarrels,  and  freeing  their 
prisoners.  Before  setting  out  on  a military  expedition  they  wor- 


22 


COREA. 


shipped  Heaven,  and  sacrificed  an  ox,  examining  the  hoof,  to  obtain 
an  omen.  If  the  cloven  part  remained  separated,  the  portent  was 
evil,  if  the  hoof  closed  together,  the  omen  was  auspicious. 

The  Fuyu  chief  men  or  rulers  were  named  after  the  domestic 
beasts,  beginning  with  their  noblest  animal,  the  horse,  then  the  ox, 
the  dog,  etc.  Riders  of  cities  were  of  this  order.  Their  king  was 
buried  at  his  death  in  a coffin  made  of  jade. 

Evidently  the  Fuyu  people  were  a vigorous  northern  race, 
well  clothed  and  fed,  rich  in  grain,  horses  and  cattle,  possessing 
the  arts  of  life,  with  considerable  literary  culture,  and  well  ad- 
vanced in  social  order  and  political  knowledge.  Though  the  Chi- 
nese writers  classed  them  among  barbarians,  they  were,  in  con- 
trast with  their  immediate  neighbors,  a civilized  nation.  Indeed, 
to  account  for  such  a high  stage  of  civilization  thus  early  and  so 
far  fom  China,  Mr.  Ross  suggests  that  the  scene  of  the  Ki  Tsze’s 
labors  was  in  Fuyu,  rather  than  in  Chu-sen.  Certain  it  is  that 
the  Finn  people  were  the  first  nation  of  Manchuria  to  emerge 
from  barbarism,  and  become  politically  well  organized.  It  is  signifi- 
cant, as  serving  to  support  the  conjecture  that  Ki  Tsze  founded 
Fuyu,  that  we  discern,  even  in  the  early  history  of  this  vigor- 
ous nation,  the  institution  of  feudalism.  We  find  a king  and  no- 
bles, with  fortified  cities,  and  wealthy  men,  with  farms,  herds  of 
horses,  cattle,  and  granaries.  We  find  also  a class  of  serfs,  created 
by  the  degradation  of  criminals  or  their  relatives.  The  other 
Manchurian  people,  or  barbarians,  surrounding  China,  were  still 
in  the  nomadic  or  patriarchal  state.  Why  so  early  beyond  China 
do  we  find  a well-developed  feudal  system  and  high  political  or- 
ganization ? 

It  was  from  feudal  China,  the  China  of  the  Yin  dynasty,  from 
which  Ki  Tsze  emigrated  to  the  northeast.  Knowing  no  other 
form  of  government,  he,  if  their  founder,  doubtless  introduced 
feudal  forms  of  government. 

Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  theory  there  suggested,  it  is 
certainly  surprising  to  find  a distinctly  marked  feudal  system, 
already  past  the  rudimentary  stage,  in  the  wilderness  of  Man- 
churia, a thousand  miles  away  from  the  seats  of  Chinese  culture, 
as  early  as  the  Christian  era. 

As  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe  was  at  some  time  feudalized,  so 
China,  Corea,  and  Japan  have  each  passed  through  this  stage  of 
political  life. 

The  feudal  system  in  China  was  abolished  by  Shi  Whang  Ti, 


THE  FUYU  RACE  AND  THEIR  MIGRATIONS. 


23 


tlie  first  universal  Emperor,  b.c.  221,  but  that  of  Japan  only  after  an 
interval  of  2,000  years,  surviving  until  1871.  It  lingers  still  in 
Corea,  whose  history  it  has  greatly  influenced,  as  our  subsequent 
narrative  will  prove.  In  addition  to  the  usual  features  of  feudal- 
ism, the  existence  of  serfdom,  in  fact  as  well  as  in  form,  is  proved 
by  the  testimony  of  Dutch  and  French  observers,  and  of  the  lan- 
guage itself.  The  richness  of  Corean  speech,  in  regal’d  to  every 
phase  and  degree  of  servitude,  would  suffice  for  a Norman  land- 
holder in  mediaeval  England,  or  for  a Carolina  cotton-planter  be- 
fore the  American  civil  war. 

Out  of  this  kingdom  of  Fuyu  came  the  people  who  are  the 
ancestors  of  the  modem  Coreans.  In  the  same  Chinese  history 
which  describes  Fuyu,  we  have  a picture  of  the  kingdom  of  Koko- 
rai  (or  Kao-ku-li),  which  had  Fuyu  for  its  northern  and  Cho-sen 
for  its  southern  neighbor.  “The  land  was  two  thousand  li  square, 
and  contained  many  great  moun tains,  and  deep  valleys.”  There 
was  a tradition  among  the  Eastern  barbarians  that  they  were  an 
offshoot  from  Fuyu.  Hence  their  language  and  laws  were  very 
much  alike.  The  nation  was  divided  into  five  families,  named 
after  the  four  points  of  the  compass,  with  a yellow  or  central 
tribe. 

Evidently  this  means  that  a few  families,  perhaps  five  in  num- 
ber, leaving  Fuyu,  set  out  toward  the  south,  and  in  the  valleys 
west  of  the  Yalu  River  and  along  the  42d  parallel,  founded  a 
new  nation.  Their  first  king  was  Ko,  who,  perhaps,  to  gain  the 
prestige  of  ancient  descent,  joined  his  name  to  that  of  Korai 
(written  however  with  the  characters  which  make  the  sound  of 
modem  Korai)  and  thus  the  realm  of  Kokorai  received  its  name. 

A Japanese  writer  derives  the  term  Kokorai  from  words  se- 
lected out  of  a passage  in  the  Chinese  classics  referring  to  the 
high  mountains.  The  first  character  Ko,  in  Kokorai,  means  high, 
and  it  was  under  the  shadows  of  the  lofty  Ever  White  Mountains 
that  this  vigorous  nation  had  its  cradle  and  its  home  in  youth. 
Here,  too,  its  warriors  nourished  their  strength  until  their  clouds 
of  horsemen  burst  upon  the  frontiers  of  the  Chinese  empire,  and 
into  the  old  kingdom  of  Cho-sen.  The  people  of  this  young  state 
were  rich  in  horses  and  cattle,  but  less  given  to  agriculture. 
They  lived  much  in  the  open  air,  and  were  fierce,  impetuous, 
strong,  and  hardy.  They  were  fond  of  music  and  pleasure  at 
night.  Especially  characteristic  was  their  love  of  decoration  and 
display.  At  their  public  gatherings  they  decked  themselves  in 


24 


COREA. 


dresses  embroidered  with  gold  and  silver.  Their  houses  were  also 
adorned  in  various  ways.  Their  chief  display  was  at  funerals, 
when  a prodigal  outlay  of  precious  metals,  jewels,  and  embroi- 
deries was  exhibited. 

In  their  religion  they  sacrificed  to  Heaven,  to  the  spirits  of  the 
land,  and  of  the  harvests,  to  the  morning  star,  and  to  the  celestial 
and  invisible  powers.  There  were  no  prisons,  but  when  crimes 
were  committed  the  chiefs,  after  deliberation,  put  the  criminal  to 
death  and  reduced  the  wives  and  children  to  slavery.  In  this  way 
serfs  were  provided  for  labor.  In  their  burial  customs,  they 
made  a cairn,  and  planted  fir-trees  around  it,  as  many  Japanese 
tombs  are  made. 

In  the  general  forms  of  their  social,  religious,  and  political  life, 
i he  people  of  Fuyu  and  Kokorai  were  identical,  or  nearly  so ; 
while  both  closely  resemble  the  ancient  Japanese  of  Yamato. 

The  Chinese  authors  also  state  that  these  people  were  already 
in  possession  of  the  Confucian  classics,  and  had  attained  to  an  un- 
usual degree  of  literary  culture.  Their  officials  were  divided  into 
twelve  ranks,  which  was  also  the  ancient  Japanese  number.  In 
the  method  of  divination,  in  the  wearing  of  flowery  costumes,  and 
in  certain  forms  of  etiquette,  they  and  the  Japanese  were  alike. 
As  is  now  well  known,  the  ancient  form  of  government  of  the 
Yamato  Japanese  (that  is,  of  the  conquering  race  from  Corea  and 
the  north)  was  a rude  feudalism  and  not  a monarchy.  Further, 
the  central  part  of  Japan,  first  held  by  the  ancestors  of  the  mi- 
kado, consists  of  Jive  provinces,  like  the  Kokorai  division,  into  five 
clans  or  tribes. 

At  the  opening  of  the  Christian  era  we  find  the  people  of  Ko- 
korai already  strong  and  restless  enough  to  excite  attention  from 
the  Chinese  court.  In  9 a.d.  they  were  recognized  as  a nation 
with  their  own  “kings,”  and  classified  with  Huentu,  one  of  the 
districts  of  old  Cho-sen.  One  of  these  kings,  in  the  year  30,  sent 
tribute  to  the  Chinese  emperor.  In  50  a.d.  Kokorai,  by  invitation, 
sent  their  warriors  to  assist  the  Chinese  army  against  a rebel  horde 
in  the  northwest.  In  a.d.  70  the  men  of  Kokorai  descended  upon 
Liao  Tung,  and  having  now  a taste  for  border  war  and  conquest, 
they  marched  into  the  petty  kingdom  of  Wei,  which  lay  in  what  is 
now  the  extreme  northeast  of  Corea.  Absorbing  this  little  coun- 
try, they  kept  up  constant  warfare  against  the  Chinese.  Though 
then-  old  kinsmen,  the  Fuyu  men,  were  at  times  allies  of  the  Han, 
yet  they  gradually  spread  themselves  eastward  and  southward,  so 


THE  FUYU  RACE  AND  THEIR  MIGRATIONS. 


25 


Fuyu  and  Manchiu. 


26 


COREA. 


that  by  169  a.d.  the  Kokorai  kingdom  embraced  the  whole  of  the 
territory  of  old  Cho-sen,  or  of  Liao  Tung,  with  all  the  Corean 
peninsula  north  of  the  Ta-tong,  and  even  to  the  Tumen  River. 

This  career  of  conquest  suffered  a check  for  a time,  when  a 
Chinese  expedition,  sailing  up  the  Yalu  River,  invested  the  capital 
city  of  the  king  and  defeated  his  army.  The  king  fled  beyond 
the  Tumen  River.  Eight  thousand  people  are  said  to  have  been 
made  prisoners  or  slaughtered  by  the  Chinese.  For  a time  it 
seemed  as  though  Kokorai  were  too  badly  crippled  to  move  again. 

Anarchy  broke  out  in  China,  on  the  fall  of  the  house  of  Han, 
a.d.  220,  and  lasted  for  half  a century.  That  period  of  Chinese  his- 
tory, from  221  to  277,  is  called  the  “Epoch  of  the  Three  King- 
doms.” During  this  period,  and  until  well  into  the  fifth  century, 
while  China  was  rent  into  “Northern  ” and  “ Southern  ” divisions, 
the  military  activities  of  Kokorai  were  employed  with  varying  re- 
sults against  the  petty  kingdoms  that  rose  and  fell,  one  after  the 
other,  on  the  soil  between  the  Great  Wall  and  the  Yalu  River. 
During  this  time  the  nation,  free  from  the  power  and  oppression  of 
China,  held  her  own  and  compacted  her  power.  In  the  fifth  cen- 
tury her  warriors  had  penetrated  nearly  as  far  west  as  the  modern 
Peking  in  their  cavalry  raids.  Wily  in  diplomacy,  as  brave  in 
war,  they  sent  tribute  to  both  of  the  rival  claimants  for  the  throne 
of  China  which  were  likely  to  give  them  trouble  in  the  future. 
Dropping  the  family  name  of  their  first  king,  they  retained  that 
of  their  ancestral  home-land,  and  called  their  nation  Korai. 

Meanwhile,  as  they  multiplied  in  numbers,  the  migration  of  Ko- 
korai people,  henceforth  known  as  Korai  men,  set  steadily  south- 
ward. Weakness  in  China  meant  strength  in  Korai.  The  Chinese 
had  bought  peace  with  their  Eastern  neighbors  by  titles  and  gifts, 
wliicli  left  the  Koraians  free  to  act  against  their  southern  neigh- 
bors. In  steadily  displacing  these,  they  came  into  collision  with 
the  little  kingdom  of  Hiaksai,  whose  history  will  be  narrated 
farther  on.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  Korai  men,  people  of  the 
Fuyu  race,  finally  occupied  the  territory  of  Hiaksai.  Already  the 
Koraians,  sure  of  further  conquest  southward,  fixed  their  capital  at 
Ping-an. 

In  589  a.d.  the  house  of  Sui  was  established  on  the  dragon 
throne,  and  a portentous  message  was  sent  to  the  King  of  Korai, 
which  caused  the  latter  to  make  vigorous  war  preparations.  Evi- 
dently the  Chinese  emperor  meant  to  throttle  the  young  giant  of 
the  north,  while  the  young  giant  was  equally  determined  to  live. 


THE  PUYU  RACE  AND  THEIR  MIGRATIONS. 


27 


The  movement  of  a marauding  force  of  Koraians,  even  to  the  inside 
of  the  Great  Wall,  gave  the  bearded  dragon  not  only  the  pretext 
of  war  but  of  annexation. 

For  this  purpose  an  army  of  three  hundred  thousand  men  and 
a fleet  of  several  hundred  war- junks  were  prepared.  The  latter 
were  to  sail  over  from  Shantung,  and  enter  the  Ta-tong  River,  the 
goal  of  the  expedition  being  Ping-an  city,  the  Koraian  capital. 

The  horde  started  without  provisions,  and  arrived  in  mid-sum- 
mer at  the  Liao  River  in  want  of  food.  While  waiting,  during  the 
hot  weather,  in  this  malarious  and  muddy  region,  the  soldiers  died 
by  tens  of  thousands  of  fever  and  plague.  The  incessant  rains 
soon  rendered  the  roads  impassable  and  transport  of  provisions 
an  impossibility.  Disease  melted  the  mighty  host  away,  and  the 
army,  reduced  to  one-fifth  its  numbers,  was  forced  to  retreat.  The 
war-junks  fared  no  better,  for  storms  in  the  Yellow  Sea  drove  them 
back  or  foundered  them  by  the  score. 

Such  a frightful  loss  of  life  and  material  did  not  deter  the 
next  emperor,  the  infamous  Yang  (who  began  the  Grand  Canal), 
from  following  out  the  scheme  of  his  father,  whom  he  conveni- 
ently poisoned  while  already  dying.  In  spite  of  the  raging  fam- 
ines and  losses  by  flood,  the  emperor  ordered  magazines  for  the 
armies  of  invasion  to  be  established  near  the  coast,  and  contin- 
gents of  troops  for  the  twenty-four  corps  to  be  raised  in  every 
province.  All  these  preparations  caused  local  famines  and  drove 
many  of  the  people  into  rebellion. 

This  army,  one  of  the  greatest  ever  assembled  in  China,  num- 
bered over  one  million  men.  Its  equipment  consisted  largely  of 
banners,  gongs,  and  trumpets.  The  undisciplined  horde  began 
their  march,  aiming  to  reach  the  Liao  River  before  the  hot  season 
set  in.  They  found  the  Koraian  army  ready  to  dispute  their  pas- 
sage. Three  bridges,  hastily  constructed,  wTere  thrown  across  the 
stream,  on  which  horse  and  foot  pressed  eagerly  toward  the 
enemy.  The  width  of  the  river  had,  however,  been  miscalcula- 
ted and  the  bridges  were  too  short,  so  that  many  thousands  of  the 
Chinese  were  drowned  or  killed  by  the  Koraians,  at  unequal  odds, 
while  fighting  on  the  shore.  In  two  days,  however,  the  bridges 
were  lengthened  and  the  whole  force  crossed  over.  The  Chinese 
van  pursued  their  enemy,  slaughtering  ten  thousand  before  they 
could  gain  the  fortified  city  of  Liao  Tung.  Once  inside  their 
walls,  however,  the  Korai  soldiers  were  true  to  their  reputation  of 
being  splendid  garrison  fighters.  Instead  of  easy  victory  the 


2S 


COREA. 


Chinese  army  lay  around  the  city  unable,  even  after  several 
months’  besieging,  to  breach  the  walls  or  weaken  the  spirit  of  the 
defenders. 

Meanwhile  the  other  division  had  marched  northward  and 
eastward,  according  to  the  plan  of  the  campaign.  Eight  of  these 
army  corps,  numbering  300,000  men,  arrived  and  went  into  camp 
on  the  west  bank  of  the  Yalu  River.  In  spite  of  express  orders  to 
the  contrary,  the  soldiers  had  thrown  away  most  of  the  hundred 
days’  rations  of  grain  with  which  they  started,  and  the  commissa- 
riat was  very  low.  The  Koraian  commander,  carrying  out  the 
Fabian  policy,  tempted  them  away  from  their  camp,  and  led  them 
by  skirmishing  parties  to  within  a hundred  miles  of  Ping-an. 
The  Chinese  fleet  lay  within  a few  leagues  of  the  invading  army, 
but  land  and  sea  forces  were  mutually  ignorant  of  each  other’s  vi- 
cinity. Daring  not  to  risk  the  siege  of  a city  so  well  fortified  by 
nature  and  art  as  Ping-an,  in  his  present  lack  of  supplies,  the  Chi- 
nese general  reluctantly  ordered  a retreat,  which  began  in  late 
summer,  the  nearest  base  of  supplies  being  Liao  Tung,  four  hun- 
dred miles  away  and  through  an  enemy’s  country. 

This  was  the  signal  for  the  Koraians  to  assume  the  offensive, 
and  like  the  Cossacks,  upon  the  army  of  Napoleon,  in  Russia,  they 
hung  upon  the  flanks  of  the  hungry  fugitives,  slaughtering  thou- 
sands upon  thousands. 

When  the  Chinese  host  were  crossing  the  Chin-chion  River, 
the  Koraian  army  fell  in  full  force  upon  them,  and  the  fall  of  the 
commander  of  their  rear-guard  turned  defeat  into  a rout.  The 
disorderly  band  of  fugitives  rested  not  till  well  over  and  beyond 
the  Yalu  River.  Of  that  splendid  army  of  300,000  men  only  a 
few  thousand  reached  Liao  Tung  city.  The  weapons,  spoil,  and 
prisoners  taken  by  the  Koraians  were  “ myriads  of  myriads  of 
myriads.”  The  naval  forces  in  the  river,  on  hearing  the  amazing 
news  of  their  comrades’  defeat,  left  Corea  and  crept  back  to  China. 
The  Chinese  emperor  was  so  enraged  at  the  utter  failure  of  his 
prodigious  enterprise,  that  he  had  the  fugitive  officers  publicly 
put  to  death  as  an  example. 

In  spite  of  the  disasters  of  the  previous  year,  the  emperor 
Yang,  in  613,  again  sent  an  army  to  besiege  Liao  Tung  city.  On 
this  occasion  scaling  ladders,  150  feet  long,  and  towers,  mounted 
on  wheels,  were  used  with  great  effect.  Just  on  the  eve  of  the 
completion  of  their  greatest  work  and  tower  the  Chinese  camp 
was  suddenly  abandoned,  the  emperor  being  called  home  to  put 


THE  FUYU  RACE  AND  THEIR  MIGRATIONS. 


29 


down  a formidable  rebellion.  So  cautious  were  the  besieged  and 
so  sudden  was  the  flight  of  the  besiegers,  that  it  was  noon  before 
a Koraian  ventured  into  camp,  and  two  days  elapsed  before  they 
discovered  that  the  retreat  was  not  feigned.  Then  the  Koraian 
garrison  attacked  the  Chinese  rear-guard  with  severe  loss. 

The  rebellion  at  home  having  been  put  down  the  emperor 
again  cherished  the  plan  of  crushing  Korai,  but  other  and  greater 
insurrections  broke  out  that  required  his  attention  ; for  the  three 
expeditions  against  Corea  had  wasted  the  empire  even  as  they  had 
sealed  the  doom  of  the  Sui  dynasty.  Though  no  land  forces  could 
be  spared,  a new  fleet  was  sent  to  Corea  to  lay  siege  to  Ping-an  city. 
Even  with  large  portions  of  his  dominions  in  the  hands  of  rebels, 
Yang  never  gave  up  his  plan  of  humbling  Korai.  This  project 
was  the  cause  of  the  most  frightful  distress  in  China,  and  seeing 
no  hope  of  saving  the  country  except  by  the  murder  of  the  infa- 
mous emperor,  coward,  drunkard,  tyrant,  and  voluptuary,  a band 
of  conspirators,  headed  by  Yii  Min,  put  him  to  death  and  Korai 
had  rest. 

To  summarize  this  chapter.  It  is  possible  that  Ivi  Tsze  was 
the  founder  of  Fuyu.  The  Ivokorai  tribes  were  people  who  had 
migrated  from  Fuyu,  and  settled  north  and  west  of  the  upper 
waters  of  the  Yalu  River.  They  entered  into  relations  with  the 
Chinese  as  early  as  9 a.d.,  and  coming  into  collision  with  them  by 
the  year  70,  they  kept  up  a fitful  warfare  with  them,  sustaining 
mighty  invasions,  until  the  seventh  century,  while  in  the  mean- 
time Korai,  instead  of  being  crushed  by  China,  grew  in  area  and 
lumbers  until  the  nation  had  spread  into  the  peninsula,  and  over- 
run it  as  far  as  the  Han  River. 

Thus  far  the  history  of  Corea  has  been  that  of  the  northern 
and  western  part  of  the  peninsula,  and  has  been  derived  chiefly 
from  Chinese  sources.  We  turn  now  to  the  southern  and  eastern 
portions,  and  in  narrating  their  history  we  shall  point  out  their 
relations  with  Japan  as  well  as  with  China,  relying  largely  for  our 
information  upon  the  Japanese  annals. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


SAM-HAN,  OR  SOUTHERN  COREA. 


At  the  time  of  the  suppression  of  Cho-sen  and  the  incorpora- 
tion of  its  territory  with  the  Chinese  Empire,  b.c.  107,  all  Corea 


south  of  the  Ta-tong  River  was  divided  into  three  han,  or  geo- 
graphical divisions.  Their  exact  boundaries  are  uncertain,  but 
their  general  topography  may  be  learned  from  the  map. 


SAM-HAN,  OR  SOUTHERN  COREA. 


31 


MA-HAN  AND  BEN-HAN. 

This  little  country  included  fifty-four  tribes  or  clans,  each  one 
independent  of  the  other,  and  living  under  a sort  of  patriarchal 
government.  The  larger  tribes  are  said  to  have  been  composed 
of  ten  thousand,  and  the  smaller  of  a thousand,  families  each. 
Round  numbers,  however,  in  ancient  records  are  worth  little  for 
critical  purposes. 

South  of  the  Ma-han  was  the  Ben-han,  in  which  were  twelve 
tribes,  having  the  same  manners  and  customs  as  the  Ma-han,  and 
speaking  a different  yet  kindred  dialect.  One  of  these  clans 
formed  the  little  kingdom  of  Amana,  from  which  came  the  first 
visit  of  Coreans  recorded  in  the  Japanese  annals. 

After  the  overthrow  of  his  family  and  kingdom  by  the  traitor 
W ei-man,  Kijun,  the  king  of  old  Cho-sen  escaped  to  the  sea  and 
fled  south  toward  the  archipelago.  He  had  with  him  a number 
of  his  faithful  adherents,  their  -wives  and  children.  He  landed 
among  one  of  the  clans  of  Ma-han,  composed  of  Chinese  refugees, 
who,  not  wishing  to  live  under  the  Han  emperors,  had  crossed  the 
Yellow  Sea.  On  account  of  their  numbering,  originally,  one  hun- 
dred families,  they  called  themselves  Hiaksai.  Either  by  conquest 
or  invitation  Kijun  soon  became  their  king.  Glimpses  of  the 
manner  of  life  of  these  early  people  are  given  by  a Chinese  writer. 

The  Ma-han  people  were  agricultural,  dwelling  in  -soilages,  but 
neither  driving  nor  riding  oxen  or  horses,  most  probably  because 
they  did  not  possess  them.  Their  huts  were  made  of  earth 
banked  upon  timber,  with  the  door  in  the  roof.  They  went  bare- 
headed, and  coiled  or  tied  their  hair  in  a knot.  They  set  no  value 
on  gold,  jewels,  or  embroidery,  but  -wore  pearls  sewed  on  their 
clothes  and  hung  on  their  necks  and  ears.  Perhaps  the  word  here 
translated  “pearl”  may  be  also  applied  to  drilled  stones  of  a 
cylindrical  or  curved  shape,  like  the  viagatama,  or  “bent  jewels,” 
of  the  ancient  Japanese.  They  shod  their  feet  with  sandals,  and 
wore  garments  of  woven  stuff.  In  etiquette  they  were  but  slightly 
advanced,  paying  little  honor  to  women  or  to  the  aged.  Like  our 
Indian  bucks,  the  young  men  tested  their  endurance  by  torture. 
Slitting  the  skin  of  the  back,  they  ran  a cord  through  the  flesh, 
upon  which  was  hung  a piece  of  wood.  This  was  kept  suspended 
till  the  man,  unable  longer  to  endure  it,  cried  out  to  have  it  taken 
off. 


COREA. 


32 


After  tlie  field  work  was  over,  in  early  summer,  tliey  held 
Irinking  bouts,  in  honor  of  the  spirits,  with  songs  and  dances. 
Scores  of  men,  quickly  following  each  other,  stamped  on  the 
ground  to  beat  time  as  they  danced.  In  the  late  autumn,  after 
harvests,  they  repeated  these  ceremonies.  In  each  clan  there  was 
a man,  chosen  as  ruler,  to  sacrifice  to  the  spirits  of  heaven.  On 
a great  pole  they  hung  drums  and  bells  for  the  service  of  the 
heavenly  spirits.  Perhaps  these  are  the  originals  of  the  tall  and 
slender  pagodas  with  their  pendant  wind-bells  at  the  many  eaves 
and  comers. 

Among  the  edible  products  of  Ma-han  were  fowls  with  tails  five 
feet  in  length.  These  “hens  with  tails  a yard  long”  were  evi- 
dently pheasants — still  a delicacy  on  Corean  tables.  The  large 
apple-shaped  pears,  which  have  a wooden  taste,  half  way  between 
a pear  and  an  apple,  were  then,  as  now,  produced  in  great  num- 
ber's. The  flavor  improves  by  cooking. 

As  Kijun’s  government  was  one  of  vigor,  his  subjects  advanced 
in  civilization,  the  Hiaksai  people  gradually  extended  their  au- 
thority and  influence.  The  clan  names  in  time  faded  away  or  be 
came  symbols  of  family  bonds  instead  of  governmental  authority, 
so  that  by  the  fourth  century  Hiaksai  had  become  paramount 
over  all  the  fifty-four  tribes  of  Ma-han,  as  well  as  over  some  of 
those  of  the  other  two  han. 

Thus  arose  the  kingdom  of  Hiaksai  (called  also  Kudara  by  the 
Japanese,  Petsi  by  the  Chinese,  and  Baiji  by  the  modern  Coreans), 
which  has  a history  extending  to  the  tenth  century,  when  it  was 
extinguished  in  name  and  fact  in  united  Corea. 

Its  relations  with  Japan  were,  in  the  main,  friendly,  the  island- 
ers of  the  Sunrise  Kingdom  being  comrades  in  arms  with  them 
against  their  invaders,  the  Chinese,  and  their-  hostile  neighbors, 
the  men  of  Shinra — whose  origin  we  shall  now  proceed  to  detail. 


SHIN-HAN. 

After  the  fall  of  the  Tsin  dynasty  in  China,  a small  body  of 
refugees,  leaving  their  native  seats,  fled  across  the  Yellow  Sea 
toward  the  Sea  of  Japan,  resting  only  when  over  the  great  moun- 
tain chain.  They  made  settlements  in  the  valleys  and  along  the 
sea-coast.  At  first  they  preserved  then-  blood  and  language  pure, 
forming  one  of  the  twelve  clans  or  tribes  into  which  the  han  or 
country  was  divided. 


SAM-HAN,  OR  SOUTHERN  COREA. 


33 


This  name  Shin  (China  or  Chinese),  which  points  to  the  origin 
of  the  clan,  belonged  to  but  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  in  eastern 
Corea.  As  in  the  case  of  Hiaksai,  the  Shin  tribe,  being  possessed 
of  superior  power  and  intelligence,  extended  their  authority  and 
boundaries,  gradually  becoming  very  powerful.  Under  their 
twenty-second  hereditary  chief,  or  “ king,”  considering  themselves 
paramount  over  all  the  clans,  they  changed  the  name  of  their 
country  to  Shinra,  which  is  pronounced  in  Chinese  Sinlo. 

Between  the  years  29  and  70  a.d.,  according  to  the  Japanese 
histories,  an  envoy  from  Shinra  arrived  in  Japan,  and  after  an 
audience  had  of  the  mikado,  presented  him  with  mirrors,  swords, 
jade,  and  other  works  of  skill  and  art.  In  this  we  have  a hint  as 
to  the  origin  of  Japanese  decorative  art.  It  is  evident  from  these 
gifts,  as  well  as  from  the  reports  of  Chinese  historians  concern- 
ing the  refined  manners,  the  hereditary  aristocracy,  and  the  for- 
tified strongholds  of  the  Shinra  people,  that  their  grade  of  civili- 
zation was  much  higher  than  that  of  their  northern  neighbors. 
It  was  certainly  superior  to  that  of  the  Japanese,  who,  as  we 
shall  see,  were  soon  tempted  to  make  descents  upon  the  fertile 
lands,  rich  cities,  and  defenceless  coasts  of  their  visitors  from  the 
west. 

How  long  the  Chinese  colonists  who  settled  in  Shin-han  pre- 
served their  language  and  customs  is  not  known.  Though  these 
were  lost  after  a few  generations,  yet  it  is  evident  that  their  influ- 
ence on  the  aborigines  of  the  country  was  very  great.  From  first 
to  last  Shinra  excelled  in  civilization  all  the  petty  states  in  the 
peninsula,  of  which  at  first  there  were  seventy-eight.  Unlike  the 
Ma-han,  the  Shin-han  people  lived  in  palisaded  cities,  and  in 
houses  the  doors  of  which  were  on  the  ground  and  not  on  the 
roof.  They  cultivated  mulberry-trees,  reared  the  silk-worm,  and 
wove  silk  into  fine  fabrics.  They  used  wagons  with  yoked  oxen, 
and  horses  for  draught,  and  practised  “the  law  of  the  road.” 
Marriage  was  conducted  with  appropriate  ceremony.  Dancing, 
drinking,  and  singing  were  favorite  amusements,  and  the  lute  was 
played  in  addition  to  drums.  They  understood  the  art  of  smelt- 
ing and  working  iron,  and  used  this  metal  as  money.  They  car- 
ried on  trade  with  the  other  han,  and  with  Japan.  How  far  these 
arts  owed  their  encouragement  or  origin  to  traders,  or  travelling 
merchants  from  China,  is  not  known.  Evidently  Shinra  enjoyed 
leadership  in  the  peninsula,  largely  from  her  culture,  wealth,  and 
knowledge  of  iron.  The  curious  custom,  so  well  known  among 
3 


34 


COREA. 


American  savages,  of  flattening  the  heads  of  newly  bom  infants,  is 
noted  among  the  Shin-han  people. 

Neither  Chinese  history  nor  Japanese  tradition,  though  they 
give  us  some  account  of  a few  hundred  families  of  emigrants  from 
China  who  settled  in  the  already  inhabited  Corean  peninsula,  throws 
any  light  on  the  aborigines  as  to  whence  or  when  they  came.  The 
curtain  is  lifted  only  to  show  us  that  a few  people  ai’e  already 
there,  with  language  and  customs  different  from  those  of  China. 
The  descendants  of  the  comparatively  few  Chinese  settlers  were 
no  doubt  soon  lost,  with  their  language  and  ancestral  customs, 
among  the  mass  of  natives.  These  aboriginal  ti’ibes  were  destined 
to  give  way  to  a new  people  from  the  far  north,  as  we  shall  leai’n 
in  our  further  narrative.  The  Japanese  historians  seem  to  distin- 
guish between  the  San  Han,  the  three  counti'ies  or  confederacies 
of  loosely  oi’ganized  tribes,  and  the  San  Goku,  or  Three  Kingdoms. 
The  Coi'eans,  however,  speak  only  of  the  Sam-han,  meaning 
thereby  the  three  political  divisions  of  the  peninsula,  and  using 
the  word  as  referring  rather  to  the  epoch.  The  common  “ cash,” 
or  fractional  coin  cuirent  in  the  country,  bears  the  characters 
meaning  “circulating  medium  of  the  Thi’ee  Kingdoms,”  or  Sam- 
han.  These  were  Korai  in  the  north,  Shim’a  in  the  southeast,  and 
Hiaksai  in  the  southwest.  Other  Japanese  names  for  these  were 
respectively  Kome,  Shiriaki,  and  Kudara,  the  Chinese  terms  being 
Kaoli,  Sinlo,  and  Pe-tsi. 

Like  the  three  kingdoms  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales, 
called  also  Britannia,  Caledonia,  and  Cambria,  these  Corean  states 
were  distinct  in  origin,  were  conquered  by  a race  from  without, 
received  a i*ich  infusion  of  alien  blood,  struggled  in  rivalry  for 
centuries,  and  were  finally  united  into  one  nation,  with  one  flag 
and  one  sovereign. 


Coin  of  the  Sam-han  or  the  Three  Kingdoms.  " Sam-han,  Current  Treasure." 


CHAPTER  Y. 


EPOCH  OF  THE  THREE  KINGDOMS.— HIAKSAI. 

The  history  of  the  peninsular  states  from  the  time  in  which  it  is 
first  known  until  the  tenth  century,  is  that  of  almost  continuous 
civil  war  or  border  fighting.  The  boundaries  of  the  rival  king- 
doms changed  from  time  to  time  as  raid  and  reprisal,  victory  or 
defeat,  turned  the  scale  of  war.  A series  of  maps  of  the  penin- 
sula expressing  the  political  situation  during  each  century  or 
half-century  would  show  many  variations  of  boundaries,  and  re- 
semble those  of  Great  Britain  when  the  various  native  and  con- 
tinental tribes  were  struggling  for  its  mastery.  Something  like 
an  attempt  to  depict  these  changes  in  the  political  geography  of 
the  peninsula  has  been  made  by  the  Japanese  historian,  Otsuki 
Toyo,  in  his  work  entitled  “ Historical  Periods  and  Changes  of  the 
Japanese  Empire.” 

Yet  though  our  narrative,  through  excessive  brevity,  seems  to  be 
only  a picture  of  war,  we  must  not  forget  that  Hiaksai,  once  low- 
est in  civilization,  rapidly  became,  and  for  a while  continued,  the 
leading  state  in  the  peninsula.  It  held  the  lead  in  literary  culture 
until  crushed  by  China.  The  classics  of  Confucius  and  Mencius, 
with  letters,  writing,  and  their  whole  train  of  literary  blessings, 
were  introduced  first  to  the  peninsula  in  Hiaksai.  In  374  a.d. 
Ko-ken  was  appointed  a teacher  or  master  of  Chinese  literature, 
and  enthusiastic  scholars  gathered  at  the  court.  Buddhism  fol- 
lowed with  its  educational  influences,  becoming  a focus  of  light 
and  culture.  As  early  as  372  a.d.  an  apostle  of  northern  Buddh- 
ism had  penetrated  into  Liao  Tung,  and  perhaps  across  the 
Yalu.  In  384  a.d.  the  missionary  Marananda,  a Thibetan,  for- 
mally established  temples  and  monasteries  in  Hiaksai,  in  which 
women  as  well  as  men  became  scholastics.  Long  before  this  new 
element  of  civilization  was  rooted  in  Shinra  or  Korai,  the  faith  of 
India  was  established  and  flourishing  in  the  little  kingdom  of  Hi- 
aksai, so  that  its  influences  were  felt  as  far  as  Japan.  The  first 


36 


COREA. 


teacher  of  Chinese  letters  and  ethics  in  Nippon  was  a Corean 
named  Wani,  as  was  also  the  first  missionary  who  carried  the  im- 
ages and  sutras  of  northern  Buddhism  across  the  Sea  of  Japan. 
To  Hiaksai  more  than  to  any  other  Corean  state  Japan  owes  her 
first  impulse  toward  the  civilization  of  the  west. 

Hiaksai  came  into  collision  with  Ivokorai  as  early  as  345  a.d., 
at  which  time  also  Shinra  suffered  the  loss  of  several  cities.  In 
the  fifth  century  a Chinese  army,  sent  by  one  of  the  emperors  of 
the  Wei  dynasty  to  enforce  the  payment  of  tribute,  was  defeated 
by  Hiaksai.  Such  unexpected  military  results  raised  the  reputa- 
tion of  “ the  eastern  savages  ” so  high  in  the  imperial  mind,  that  the 
emperor  offered  the  King  of  Hiaksai  the  title  of  “ Great  Protector 
of  the  Eastern  Frontier.”  By  this  act  the  independence  of  the 
little  kingdom  was  virtually  recognized.  In  the  sixth  century, 
having  given  and  received  Chinese  aid  and  comfort  in  alliance 
with  Shinra  against  Korai,  Hiaksai  was  ravaged  in  her  borders  by 
the  troops  of  her  irate  neighbor  on  the  north.  Later  on  we  find 
these  two  states  in  peace  with  each  other  and  allied  against  Shin- 
ra, which  had  become  a vassal  of  the  Tang  emperors  of  China. 

From  this  line  of  China’s  rulers  the  kingdoms  of  Korai  and 
Hiaksai  were  to  receive  crushing  blows.  In  answer  to  Shinra’s 
prayer  for  aid,  the  Chinese  emperor,  in  660,  despatched  from 
Shantung  a fleet  of  several  hundred  sail  with  100,000  men  on 
board.  Against  this  host  from  the  west  the  Hiaksai  army  could 
make  little  resistance,  though  they  bravely  attacked  the  invaders, 
but  only  to  be  beaten.  After  a victory  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Rin-yin  River,  the  Chinese  marched  at  once  to  the  capital  of  Hi- 
aksai and  again  defeated,  with  terrible  slaughter,  the  provincial 
army.  The  king  fled  to  the  north,  and  the  city  being  nearly 
empty  of  defenders,  the  feeble  garrison  opened  the  gates.  The 
Tang  banners  fluttered  on  all  the  walls,  and  another  state  was  ab- 
sorbed in  the  Chinese  empire.  For  a time  Hiaksai,  like  a fly 
snapped  up  by  an  angry  dog,  is  lost  in  China. 

Not  long,  however,  did  the  little  kingdom  disappear  from 
sight.  In  670  a Buddhist  priest,  fired  with  patriotism,  raised  an 
army  of  monks  and  priests,  and  joining  Fuku-shin  (Fu-sin),  a 
brave  general,  they  laid  siege  to  a city  held  by  a large  Chinese 
garrison.  At  the  same  time  they  sent  word  to  the  emperor  of 
Japan  praying  for  succor  against  the  “robber  kingdom.”  They 
also  begged  that  Hosho  (Fung),  the  youthful  son  of  the  late  king, 
then  a hostage  and  pupil  at  the  mikado’s  court,  might  be  invested 


EPOCH  OF  THE  THREE  KINGDOMS.—  HI AKSAI. 


37 


with  the  royal  title  and  sent  home.  The  mikado  despatched  a 
fleet  of  400  junks  and  a large  body  of  soldiers  to  escort  the  royal 
heir  homeward.  On  his  arrival  Hosho  was  proclaimed  king. 

Meanwhile  the  priest-army  and  the  forces  under  Fuku-shin 
had  reconquered  nearly  all  their  territory,  when  they  suffered  a 
severe  defeat  near  the  sea-coast  from  the  large  Chinese  force 
hastily  despatched  to  put  down  the  rebellion.  The  invaders 
marched  eastward  and  effected  a junction  with  the  forces  of 
Shinra.  The  prospects  of  Hiaksai  were  now  deplorable. 

For  even  among  the  men  of  Hiaksai  there  was  no  unity  of  pur- 
pose. Fuku-shin  had  put  the  priest-leader  to  death,  which  arbi- 
trary act  so  excited  the  suspicions  of  the  king  that  he  in  turn 
ordered  his  general  to  be  beheaded.  He  then  sent  to  Japan,  ap- 
pealing for  reinforcements.  The  mikado,  willing  to  help  an  old 
ally,  and  fearing  that  the  Chinese,  if  victorious,  might  invade  his 
own  dominions,  quickly  responded.  The  Japanese  contingent  ar- 
rived and  encamped  near  the  mouth  of  the  Han  River,  prepara- 
tory to  a descent  by  sea  upon  Shinra.  Unsuspecting  the  near 
presence  of  an  enemy,  the  allies  neglected  their  usual  vigilance. 
A fleet  of  war-junks,  flying  the  Tang  streamers,  suddenly  ap- 
peared off  the  camp,  and  while  the  Japanese  were  engaging  these, 
the  Chinese  land  forces  struck  them  in  flank.  Taken  by  surprise, 
the  mikado’s  warriors  were  driven  like  flocks  of  sheep  into  the 
water  and  drowned  or  shot  by  the  Chinese  archers.  The  Japanese 
vessels  were  burned  as  they  lay  at  anchor  in  the  bloody  stream, 
and  the  remnants  of  the  beaten  army  got  back  to  their  islands  in 
pitiable  fragments.  Hosho,  after  witnessing  the  destruction  of 
his  host,  fled  to  Korai,  and  the  country  was  given  over  to  the 
waste  and  pillage  of  the  infuriated  Chinese.  The  royal  line,  after 
thirty  generations  and  nearly  seven  centuries  of  rule,  became  ex- 
tinct. The  sites  of  cities  became  the  habitations  of  tigers,  and 
once  fertile  fields  were  soon  overgrown.  Large  portions  of  Hiak- 
sai became  a wilderness. 

Though  the  Chinese  Government  ordered  the  bodies  of  those 
killed  in  war  and  the  white  bones  of  the  victims  of  famine  to  be 
buried,  yet  many  thousands  of  Hiaksai  families  fled  elsewhere  to 
find  an  asylum  and  to  found  new  industries.  The  people  who 
remained  on  their  fertile  lands,  as  well  as  all  Southern  Corea,  fell 
under  the  sway  of  Shinra. 

The  fragments  of  the  beaten  Japanese  army  gradually  returned 
to  their  native  country  or  settled  in  Southern  Corea.  Thousands 


38 


CORE.tl. 


of  the  people  of  Hiaksai,  detesting  the  idea  of  living  as  slaves  oi 
China,  accompanied  or  followed  their  allies  to  Japan.  On  their 
arrival,  by  order  of  the  mikado,  400  emigrants  of  both  sexes  were 
located  in  the  province  of  Omi,  and  over  2,000  were  distributed  in 
the  Kuanto,  or  Eastern  Japan.  These  colonies  of  Coreans  founded 
potteries,  and  their  descendants,  mingled  by  blood  with  the  Japan- 
ese, follow  the  trade  of  their  ancestors. 

In  710  another  body  of  Hiaksai  people,  dissatisfied  with  the 
poverty  of  the  country  and  tempted  by  the  offers  of  the  Japan- 
ese, formed  a colony  numbering  1,800  persons  and  emigrated 
to  Japan.  They  were  settled  in  Musashi,  the  province  in  which 
Tokio,  the  modern  capital,  is  situated.  Various  other  emi- 
grations of  Coreans  to  Japan  of  later  date  are  referred  to  in  the 
annals  of  the  latter  country,  and  it  is  fair  to  presume  that  tens  of 
thousands  of  emigrants  from  the  peninsula  fled  from  the  Tang  in- 
vasion and  mingled  with  the  islanders,  producing  the  composite 
race  that  inhabit  the  islands  ruled  by  the  mikado.  Among  the 
refugees  were  many  priests  and  nuns,  who  brought  their  books 
and  learning  to  the  court  at  Nara,  and  thus  diffused  about  them  a 
literary  atmosphere.  The  establishment  of  schools,  the  awaken- 
ing of  the  Japanese  intellect,  and  the  first  beginnings  of  the  litera- 
ture of  Japan,  the  composition  of  their  oldest  historical  books, 
the  Kojiki  and  the  Nihongi — all  the  fruits  of  the  latter  half  of  the 
seventh  and  early  part  of  the  eighth  century — are  directly  trace- 
able to  this  influx  of  the  scholars  of  Hiaksai,  which  being  de- 
stroyed by  China,  lived  again  in  Japan.  Even  the  pronunciation 
of  the  Chinese  characters  as  taught  by  the  Hiaksai  teachers  re- 
mains to  this  day.  One  of  them,  the  nun  Homio,  a learned  lady, 
made  her  system  so  popular  among  the  scholars  that  even  an  im- 
perial proclamation  against  it  could  not  banish  it.  She  established 
her  school  in  Tsushima,  a.d.  655,  and  there  taught  that  system  of 
[Chinese]  pronunciation  [ Go-oii\  which  still  holds  sway  in  Japan, 
among  the  ecclesiastical  literati,  in  opposition  to  the  Kan-on  of  the 
secular  scholars.  The  Go-on,  the  older  of  the  two  pronunciations,  is 
that  of  ancient  North  China,  the  Ivan-on  is  that  of  mediaeval  South- 
ern China  (Nanking).  Corea  and  Japan  having  phonetic  alpha- 
bets have  preserved  and  stereotyped  the  ancient  Chinese  pronun- 
ciation better  than  the  Chinese  language  itself,  since  the  Chinese 
have  no  phonetic  writing,  but  only  ideographic  characters,  the 
pronunciation  of  which  varies  during  the  progress  of  centuries. 

Hiaksai  had  given  Buddhism  to  Japan  as  early  as  552  a.d.,  but 


EPOCH  OF  THE  THREE  KINGDOMS.—  HIAKSAI. 


39 


opposition  had  prevented  its  spread,  the  temple  was  set  on  fire, 
and  the  images  of  Buddha  thrown  in  the  river.  In  684  one 
Say6ki  brought  another  image  of  Buddha  from  Corea,  and  Umako, 
son  of  Iname,  a minister  at  the  mikado’s  court,  enshrined  it  in  a 
chapel  on  his  own  grounds.  He  made  Yeben  and  Simata,  two 
Coreans,  his  priests,  and  his  daughter  a nun.  They  celebrated  a 
festival,  and  henceforth  Buddhism 1 grew  apace. 

The  country  toward  the  sunrise  was  then  a new  land  to  the 
peninsulars,  just  as  “the  West”  is  to  us,  or  Australia  is  to  Eng- 
land ; and  Japan  made  these  fugitives  welcome.  In  their  train 
came  industry,  learning,  and  skill,  enriching  the  island  kingdom 
with  the  best  infusion  of  blood  and  culture. 

Hiaksai  was  the  first  of  the  three  kingdoms  that  was  weak- 
ened by  civil  war  and  then  fell  a victim  to  Chinese  lust  of  con- 
quest. 

The  progress  and  fall  of  the  other  two  kingdoms  will  now  be 
narrated.  Beginning  with  Ivorai,  we  shall  follow  its  story  from 
the  year  613  a.d.,  when  the  invading  hordes  of  the  Tang  dynasty 
had  been  driven  out  of  the  peninsula  with  such  awful  slaughter 
by  the  Koraians. 

1 There  are  colossal  stone  images  at  Pe-chiu  (Pha-jiu)  in  the  capital  prov- 
ince, and  at  Un-jin  in  Chung-chong  Do.  The  former,  discovered  by  Lieuten- 
ant J.  G.  Bernadon,  U.S.N. , are  in  the  midst  of  a fir-wood,  and  are  carved  in 
half-figure  out  of  bowlders  in  place,  the  heads  and  caps  projecting  over  the 
tops  of  the  trees.  One  wears  a square  cap  and  the  other  a round  one,  from 
which  Mr.  G.  W.  Aston  conjectures  that  they  symbolize  the  male  and  female 
elements  in  nature  (p.  329).  At  Un-jin  in  Chung-chong  D5  Mr.  G.  C.  Foulke, 
U.S.N.,  saw,  at  a distance  of  fifteen  miles,  what  seemed  to  be  a lighthouse. 
On  approach,  this  half-length  human  figure  proved  to  be  a pinnacle  of  white 
granite,  sixty-four  feet  high,  cut  into  a representation  of  Buddha.  Similar 
statues  may  perhaps  be  discovered  elsewhere.  Coreans  call  such  figures  mi- 
ryek  (stone  men,  as  the  Chinese  characters  given  in  the  French-Corean  dic- 
tionary read),  or  miriok,  from  the  Chinese  Mi-le,  or  Buddha.  (In  Japanese, 
the  Buddha  to  come  is  Miroku-butsu — a verbal  coincidence.)  Professor  Terrien 
de  Lacouperie  has  written  upon  this  theme  with  great  learning.  Besides  the 
lop-ears,  forehead-mark,  and  traditional  countenance  seen  in  the  Buddhas  of 
Chinese  Asia,  there  is  on  the  Un-jin  figure  a very  high  double  cap,  on  which 
are  set  two  slabs  of  stone  joined  by  a central  column,  suggesting  both  the  cere- 
monial cap  of  ancient  Chinese  ritual  and  the  Indian  pagoda-like  umbrella. 
These  miriok  stand  in  what  was  once  Hiaksai.  In  his  “ Life  in  Corea,”  Mr. 
Carles  gives  a picture  of  the  one  at  Un-jin.  Smaller  ones  exist  near  monas- 
teries and  temples. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


EPOCH  OF  THE  THREE  KINGDOMS.— KORAI. 

After  the  struggle  in  which  the  Corean  tiger  had  worsted  the 
Western  Dragon,  early  in  the  seventh  century,  China  and  Korai 
were  for  a generation  at  peace.  The  bones  of  the  slain  were 
buried,  and  sacrificial  fires  for  the  dead  soothed  the  spirits  of  the 
victims.  The  same  imperial  messenger,  who  in  622  was  sent  to 
supervise  these  offices  of  religion,  also  visited  each  of  the  courts 
of  the  three  kingdoms.  So  successful  was  he  in  his  mission  of 
peaceful  diplomacy,  that  each  of  the  Corean  states  sent  envoys 
with  tribute  and  congratulation  to  the  imperial  throne.  In  proof 
of  his  good  wishes,  the  emperor  returned  to  his  vassals  all  his 
prisoners,  and  declared  that  their  young  men  would  be  re- 
ceived as  students  in  the  Imperial  University  at  his  capital. 
Henceforth,  as  in  many  instances  during  later  centuries,  the 
sons  of  nobles  and  promising  youth  from  Korai,  Shinra,  and 
Hiaksai  went  to  study  at  Nanking,  where  their  envoys  met  the 
Arab  traders. 

Korai  having  been  divided  into  five  provinces,  or  circuits, 
named  respectively  the  Home,  North,  South,  East,  and  West  divi- 
sions, extended  from  the  Sea  of  Japan  to  the  Liao  River,  and  en- 
joyed a brief  spell  of  peace,  except  always  on  the  southern  border ; 
for  the  chronic  state  of  Korai  and  Shinra  was  that  of  mutual  hos- 
tility. On  the  north,  beyond  the  Tumen  River,  was  the  kingdom 
of  Pu-hai,  with  which  Korai  was  at  peace,  and  Japan  was  in  inti- 
mate relations,  and  China  at  jealous  hostility. 

The  Chinese  court  soon  began  to  look  with  longing  eyes  on 
the  territory  of  that  part  of  Korai  lying  west  of  the  Yalu  River, 
believing  it  to  be  a geographical  necessity  that  it  should  become 
their  scientific  frontier,  while  the  emperor  cherished  the  hope  of 
soon  rectifying  it.  Though  unable  to  forget  the  fact  that  one  of 
his  predecessors  had  wasted  millions  of  lives  and  tons  of  treasure 
in  vainly  attempting  to  humble  Kokorai,  his  ambition  and  pride 


EPOCH  OF  THE  THREE  KINGDOMS— KORAI 


41 


spurred  him  on  to  wade  through  slaughter  to  conquest  and  re- 
venge. He  waited  only  for  a pretext. 

This  time  the  destinies  of  the  Eastern  Kingdom  were  pro- 
foundly influenced  by  the  character  of  the  feudalism  brought  into 
it  from  ancient  times,  and  which  was  one  of  the  characteristic  insti- 
tutions of  the  Fuyu  race. 

The  Government  of  Korai  was  simply  that  of  a royal  house, 
holding,  by  more  or  less  binding  ties  of  loyalty,  powerful  nobles, 
who  in  turn  held  their  lands  on  feudal  tenure.  In  certain  con- 
tingencies these  noble  land-holders  were  scarcely  less  powerful 
than  the  king  himself. 

In  641  one  of  these  liegemen,  whose  ambition  the  king  had  in 
vain  attempted  to  curb  and  even  to  put  to  death,  revenged  him- 
self by  killing  the  king  with  his  own  hands.  He  then  proclaimed 
as  sovereign  the  nephew  of  the  dead  king,  and  made  himself 
prime  minister.  Having  thus  the  control  of  all  power  in  the  state, 
and  being  a man  of  tremendous  physical  strength  and  mental 
ability,  all  the  people  submitted  quietly  to  the  new  order  of 
things,  and  were  at  the  same  time  diverted,  being  sent  to  ravage 
Shinra,  annexing  all  the  country  down  to  the  37th  parallel.  The 
Chinese  emperor  gave  investiture  to  the  new  king,  but  ordered 
this  Corean  Warwick  to  recall  his  troops  from  invading  Shinra, 
the  ally  of  China.  The  minister  paid  his  tribute  loyally,  but  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  the  right  of  China  to  interfere  in  Corean 
politics.  The  tribute  was  then  sent  back  with  insult,  and  war'  be- 
ing certain  to  follow,  Korai  prepared  for  the  worst.  War  with 
China  has  been  so  constant  a phenomenon  in  Corean  history  that 
a special  term,  Ho-ran,  exists  and  is  common  in  the  national  an- 
nals, since  the  “ Chinese  wars”  have  been  numbered  by  the  score. 

Again  the  sails  of  an  invading  fleet  whitened  the  waters  of  the 
Yellow  Sea,  carrying  the  Chinese  army  of  chastisement  that  was 
to  land  at  the  head  of  the  peninsula,  while  two  bodies  of  troops 
were  despatched  by  different  routes  landward.  The  Tang  em- 
peror was  a stanch  believer  in  Whang  Ti,  the  Asiatic  equivalent 
of  the  European  doctrine  of  the  divine  right  of  kings  to  reign — a 
tenet  as  easily  found  by  one  looking  for  it  in  the  Confucian  clas- 
sics, as  in  the  Hebrew  scriptures.  He  professed  to  be  marching 
simply  to  vindicate  the  honor  of  majesty  and  to  punish  the  regi- 
cide rebel,  but  not  to  harm  nobles  or  people.  The  invaders  soon 
overran  Liao  Tung,  and  city  after  city  fell.  The  emperor  himself 
accompanied  the  army  and  burned  his  bridges  after  the  crossing 


42 


COREA. 


of  every  river.  In  spite  of  the  mucl  and  the  summer  rains  he 
steadily  pushed  his  way  on,  helping  with  his  own  hands  in  the 
works  at  the  sieges  of  the  walled  cities — the  ruins  of  which  still 
litter  the  plains  of  Liao  Tung.  In  one  of  these,  captured  only 
after  a protracted  investment,  10,000  Koraians  are  said  to  have 
been  slain.  In  case  of  submission  on  summons,  or  after  a slight 
defence,  the  besieged  were  leniently  and  even  kindly  treated. 
By  July  all  the  country  west  of  the  Yalu  was  in  possession  of  the 
Chinese,  who  had  crossed  the  river  and  arrived  at  Anchiu,  only 
forty  miles  north  of  Ping-an  city. 

By  ti'emendous  personal  energy  and  a general  levy  in  mass,  an 
army  of  150,000  Korai  men  was  sent  against  the  Chinese,  which 
took  up  a position  on  a hill  about  three  miles  from  the  city.  The 
plan  of  the  battle  that  ensued,  made  by  the  Chinese  emperor  him- 
self, was  skilfully  carried  out  by  his  lieutenants,  and  a total  defeat 
of  the  entrapped  Koraian  army  followed,  the  slain  numbering 
20,000.  The  next  day,  with  the  remnant  of  his  army,  amounting 
to  40,000  men,  the  Koraian  general  surrendered.  Fifty  thousand 
horses  and  10,000  coats  of  mail  were  among  the  spoils.  The  foot 
soldiers  were  dismissed  and  ordered  home,  but  the  Koraian  lead- 
ers were  made  prisoners  and  marched  into  China. 

After  so  crushing  a loss  in  men  and  material,  one  might  expect 
instant  surrender  of  the  besieged  city.  So  far  from  this,  the  gar- 
rison redoubled  the  energy  of  their  defence.  In  this  we  see  a 
striking  trait  of  the  Corean  military  character  which  has  been  no- 
ticed from  the  era  of  the  Tangs,  and  before  it,  down  to  Admiral 
Bodgers.  Chinese,  Japanese,  French,  and  Americans  have  experi- 
enced the  fact  and  marvelled  thereat.  It  is  that  the  Coreans  are 
poor  soldiers  in  the  open  field  and  exhibit  slight  proof  of  personal 
valor.  They  cannot  face  a dashing  foe  nor  endure  stubborn  fight- 
ing. But  put  the  same  men  behind  walls,  bring  them  to  bay,  and 
the  timid  stag  amazes  the  hounds.  Their  whole  nature  seems  re- 
inforced. They  are  more  than  brave.  Their  courage  is  sublime. 
They  fight  to  the  last  man,  and  fling  themselves  on  the  bare 
steel  when  the  foe  clears  the  parapet.  The  Japanese  of  1592 
looked  on  the  Corean  in  the  field  as  a kitten,  but  in  the  castle  as 
a tiger.  The  French,  in  1866,  never  found  a force  that  could  face 
rifles,  though  behind  walls  the  same  men  were  invincible.  The 
American  handful  of  tars  kept  at  harmless  distance  thousands  of 
black  heads  in  the  open,  but  inside  the  fort  they  met  giants  in 
bravery.  No  nobler  foe  ever  met  American  steel.  Even  when  dis- 


EPOCH  OP  THE  THREE  KINGDOMS— KORAI. 


43 


armed  they  fought  their  enemies  with  dust  and  stones  until  slam 
to  the  last  man.  The  sailors  found  that  the  sheep  in  the  field 
were  lions  in  the  fort. 

The  Coreans  themselves  knew  both  their-  forte  and  their  foible, 
and  so  understood  how  to  foil  the  invader  from  either  sea.  Shut 
out  from  the  rival  nations  on  the  right  hand  and  on  the  left  by 
the  treacherous  sea,  buttressed  on  the  north  by  lofty  mountains, 
and  separated  from  China  by  a stretch  of  barren  or  broken  land, 
the  peninsula  is  easily  secure  against  an  invader  far  from  his  base 
of  supplies.  The  ancient  policy  of  the  Coreans,  by  which  they 
over  and  over  again  foiled  their  mighty  foe  and  finally  secured 
their  independence,  was  to  shut  themselves  up  in  their  well-pro- 
visioned cities  and  castles,  and  not  only  beat  off  but  starve  away 
their  foes.  In  their  state  of  feudalism,  when  every  city  and  strate- 
gic town  of  importance  was  well  fortified,  this  was  easily  accom- 
plished. The  ramparts  gave  them  shelter,  and  their-  personal  valor 
secured  the  rest.  Reversing  the  usual  process  of  starving  out  a 
beleaguered  garrison,  the  besiegers,  unable  to  fight  on  empty 
stomachs,  were  at  last  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  and  go  home. 
Long  persistence  in  this  resolute  policy  finally  saved  Corea 
from  the  Chinese  colossus,  and  preserved  her  individuality  among 
nations. 

Faithful  to  their  character,  as  above  set  forth,  the  Koraians 
held  their  own  in  the  city  of  Anchiu,  and  the  Chinese  could  make 
no  impression  upon  it.  In  spite  of  catapults,  scaling  ladders, 
movable  towers,  and  artificial  mounds  raised  higher  than  the 
walls,  the  Koraians  held  out,  and  by  sorties  bravely  captured  or 
destroyed  the  enemy’s  vforks.  Not  daring  to  leave  such  a fortified 
city  in  their  rear,  the  Chinese  could  not  advance  further,  while 
their  failing  provisions  and  the  advent  of  frost  showed  them  that 
they  must  retreat. 

Hungrily  they  turned  their  faces  toward  China. 

In  spite  of  the  intense  chagrin  of  the  foiled  Chinese  leader,  so 
great  was  his  admiration  for  the  valor  of  the  besieged  that  he  sent 
the  Koraian  commander  a valuable  present  of  rolls  of  silk.  The 
Koraians  were  unable  to  pursue  the  flying  invaders,  and  few  fell 
by  their  weapons.  But  hunger,  the  fatigue  of  crossing  impassa- 
ble oceans  of  worse  than  Virginia  mud,  cold  winds,  and  snow 
storms  destroyed  thousands  of  the  Chinese  on  their  weary  home- 
ward march  over  the  mountain  passes  and  quagmires  of  Liao 
Tung.  The  net  results  of  the  campaign  were  great  glory  to  Korai ; 


44 


COREA. 


and  besides  the  loss  of  ten  cities,  70,000  of  her  sons  were  captives 
in  China,  and  40,000  lay  in  battle  graves. 

According  to  a custom  which  Californians  have  learned  in  our 
day,  the  bones  of  the  Chinese  soldiers  who  died  or  were  killed  in 
the  campaign  were  collected,  brought  into  China,  and,  with  due 
sacrificial  rites  and  lamentations  by  the  emperor,  solemnly  buried 
in  their  native  soil.  Irregular  warfare  still  continued  between  the 
two  countries,  the  offered  tribute  of  Korai  being  refused,  and  the 
emperor  waiting  until  his  resources  would  justify  him  in  sending 
another  vast  fleet  and  army  against  defiant  Korai.  While  thus 
waiting  he  died. 

After  a few  years  of  peace,  his  successor  found  occasion  for 
war,  and,  in  G60  a.d.,  despatched  the  expedition  which  crushed 
Hiaksai,  the  ally  of  Korai,  and  worried,  without  humbling,  the  lat- 
ter state.  In  G64  Korai  lost  its  able  leader,  the  regicide  prime 
minister — that  rock  against  which  the  waves  of  Chinese  invasion 
had  dashed  again  and  again  in  vain. 

His  son,  who  would  have  succeeded  to  the  office  of  his  father, 
was  opposed  by  his  brother.  The  latter,  fleeing  to  China,  became 
guide  to  the  hosts  again  sent  against  Korai  “to  save  the  people 
and  to  chastise  their  rebellious  chiefs.”  This  time  Korai,  without 
a leader,  was  doomed.  The  Chinese  armies  having  their  rear  well 
secured  by  a good  base  of  supplies,  and  being  led  by  skilful  com- 
manders, marched  on  from  victory  to  victory,  until,  at  the  Yalu 
River,  the  various  detachments  united,  and  breaking  the  front  of 
the  Korai  army,  scattered  them  and  marched  on  to  Ping-an.  The 
city  surrendered  without  the  discharge  of  an  arrow.  The  line  of 
kings  of  Korai  came  to  an  end  after  twenty-eight  generations,  rul- 
ing over  700  years. 

All  Korai,  with  its  five  provinces,  its  176  cities,  and  its  four  or 
five  millions  of  people,  was  annexed  to  the  Chinese  empire.  Tens 
of  thousands  of  Koraian  refugees  fled  into  Shinra,  thousands  into 
Pu-hai,  north  of  the  Tumen,  then  a rising  state ; and  many  to  the 
new  country  of  Japan.  Desolated  by  slaughter  and  ravaged  by 
fire  and  blood,  war  and  famine,  large  portions  of  the  land  lay 
waste  for  generations.  Thus  fell  the  second  of  the  Corean  king- 
doms, and  the  sole  dominant  state  now  supreme  in  the  peninsula 
was  Shinra,  an  outline  of  whose  history  we  shall  proceed  to  give. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


EPOCH  OF  THE  THREE  KINGDOMS.— SHINRA. 

When  Skinra  becomes  first  known  to  us  from  Japanese  tradi- 
tion, her  place  in  the  peninsula  is  in  the  southeast,  comprising  por- 
tions of  the  modern  provinces  of  Kang-wen  and  Kiung-sang.  The 
people  in  this  warm  and  fertile  part  of  the  peninsula  had  very 
probably  sent  many  colonies  of  settlers  over  to  the  Japanese  Isl- 
ands, which  lay  only  a hundred  miles  off,  with  Tsushima  for  a 
stepping-stone.  It  is  probable  that  the  “rebels”  in  Kiushiu,  so 
often  spoken  of  in  old  Japanese  histories,  were  simply  Coreans  or 
their  descendants,  as,  indeed,  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Kiushiu  originally  had  been.  The  Yamato  tribe,  which  gradually 
became  paramount  in  Japan,  were  probably  immigrants  of  old  Ko- 
korai  stock,  that  is,  men  of  the  Fuyu  race,  who  had  crossed  from 
the  north  of  Corea  over  the  Sea  of  Japan,  to  the  land  of  Sunrise, 
just  as  the  Saxons  and  Engles  pushed  across  the  North  Sea  to 
England.  They  found  the  Kumaso,  or  Kiushiu  “ rebels,”  trouble- 
some, mainly  because  these  settlers  from  the  west,  or  southern 
mainland  of  Corea,  considered  themselves  to  be  the  righteous 
owners  of  the  island  rather  than  the  Yamato  people.  At  all 
events,  the  pretext  that  led  the  mikado  Chiu-ai,  wTko  is  said  to 
have  reigned  from  192  to  200  a.d.,  to  march  against  them  was,  that 
these  people  in  Kiushiu  would  not  acknowledge  his  authority. 
His  wife,  the  Amazonian  queen  Jingu,  was  of  the  opinion  that  the 
root  of  the  trouble  was  to  be  found  in  the  peninsula,  and  that  the 
army  should  be  sent  across  the  sea.  Her  husband,  having  been 
killed  in  battle,  the  queen  was  left  to  carry  out  her  purposes, 
which  she  did  at  the  date  said  to  be  202  a.d.  She  set  sail  from 
Hizen,  and  reached  the  Asian  mainland  probably  at  the  harbor  of 
Fusan.  Unable  to  resist  so  well-appointed  a force,  the  king  of 
Shinra  submitted  and  became  the  declared  vassal  of  Japan.  En- 
voys from  Hiaksai  and  another  of  the  petty  kingdoms  also  came 
to  the  Japanese  camp  and  made  friends  with  the  invaders.  After 


46 


COREA. 


a two  months’  stay,  the  victorious  fleet,  richly  laden  with  precious 
gifts  and  spoil,  returned. 

How  much  of  truth  there  is  in  this  narrative  of  Jingu  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  tell.  The  date  given  cannot  be  trustworthy.  The  truth 
seems  at  least  this,  that  Shinra  was  far  superior  to  the  Japan  of 
the  early  Christian  centuries.  Buddhism  was  formally  established 
in  Shinra  in  the  year  528  ; and  as  early  as  the  sixth  century  a steady 
stream  of  immigrants — traders,  artists,  scholars,  and  teachers,  and 
later  Buddhist  missionaries — passed  from  Shinra  into  Japan,  in- 
terrupted only  by  the  wars  -which  from  time  to  time  broke  out. 
The  relations  between  Nippon  and  Southern  Corea  will  be  more 
fully  related  in  another  chapter,  but  it  will  be  well  to  remember 
that  the  Japanese  always  laid  claim  to  the  Corean  peninsula,  and 
to  Shinra  especially,  as  a tributary  nation.  They  supported  that 
claim  not  only  whenever  embassies  from  the  two  nations  met  at  the 
court  of  China,  but  they  made  it  a more  or  less  active  part  of  their 
national  policy  down  to  the  year  1876.  Many  a bloody  war  grew 
out  of  this  claim,  but  on  the  other  hand  many  a benefit  accrued 
to  Japan,  if  not  to  Shinra. 

Meanwhile,  in  the  peninsula  the  leading  state  expanded  her 
borders  by  gradual  encroachments  upon  the  little  “ kingdom  ” of 
Mimana  to  the  southwest  and  upon  Hiaksai  on  the  north.  The 
latter,  having  always  considered  Shinra  to  be  inferior,  and  even  a 
dependant,  war  broke  out  between  the  two  states  as  soon  as  Shinra 
assumed  perfect  independence.  Korai  and  Hiaksai  leagued  them- 
selves against  Shinra,  and  the  game  of  war  continued,  -with  various 
shifting  of  the  pieces  on  the  board,  until  the  tenth  century.  The 
three  rival  states  mutually  hostile,  the  Japanese  usually  friends  to 
Hiaksai,  the  Chinese  generally  helpers  of  Shinra,  the  northern 
nations  beyond  the  Tumen  and  Sungari  assisting  Korai,  varying 
their  operations  in  the  field  with  frequent  alliances  and  counter- 
plots, make  but  a series  of  dissolving- views  of  battle  and  strife, 
into  the  details  of  which  it  is  not  profitable  to  enter.  Though 
Korai  and  Hiaksai  felt  the  heaviest  blows  from  China,  Shinra  was 
harried  oftenest  by  the  armies  of  her  neighbors  and  by  the  Japan- 
ese. Indeed,  from  a tributary  point  of  view,  it  seems  question- 
able whether  her  alliances  with  China  were  of  any  benefit  to  her. 
In  times  of  peace,  however,  the  blessings  of  education  and  civiliza- 
tion flowed  freely  from  her  great  patron.  Though  farthest  east 
from  China,  it  seems  certain  that  Shinra  was,  in  many  respects, 
the  most  highly  civilized  of  the  three  states.  Especially  was  this 


EPOCH  OF  THE  THREE  KINGDOMS— SHINRA. 


47 


the  case  during  the  Tang  era  (618-905  a.d.),  when  the  mutual  re- 
lations between  China  and  Shinra  were  closest,  and  arts,  letters, 
and  customs  were  borrowed  most  liberally  by  the  pupil  state. 
Even  at  the  present  time, in  the Corean idiom,  “Tang-yang ’’(times 
of  the  Tang  and  Yang  dynasties)  is  a synonym  of  prosperity. 
The  term  for  “Chinese,”  applied  to  works  of  art,  poetry,  coins, 
fans,  and  even  to  a certain  disease,  is  “Tang,”  instead  of  the 
ordinary  word  for  China,  since  this  famous  dynastic  title  repre- 
sents to  the  Corean  mind,  as  to  the  student  of  Kathayan  his- 
tory, one  of  the  most  brilliant  epochs  known  to  this  longest-lived 
of  empires.  What  the  names  of  Plantagenet  and  Tudor  repre- 
sent to  an  Anglo-Saxon  mind,  the  terms  Tang  and  Sung  are  to  a 
Corean. 

During  this  period,  Buddhism  was  being  steadily  propagated, 
until  it  became  the  prevailing  cult  of  the  nation.  Reserving  the 
story  of  its  progress  for  a special  chapter,  we  notice  in  this  place 
but  one  of  its  attendant  blessings.  In  the  civilization  of  a nation, 
the  possession  of  a vernacular  alphabet  must  be  acknowledged  to 
be  one  of  the  most  potent  factors  for  the  spread  of  intelligence 
and  culture.  It  is  believed  by  many  linguists  that  the  Choc- 
taws and  Coreans  have  the  only  two  perfect  alphabets  in  the 
world.  It  is  agreed  by  natives  of  Cho-sen  that  their  most  pro- 
found scholar  and  ablest  man  of  intellect  was  Chul-chong,  a 
statesman  at  the  court  of  Kion-chiu,  the  capital  of  Shinra.  This 
famous  penman,  a scholar  in  the  classics  and  ancient  languages  of 
India  as  well  as  China,  is  credited  with  the  invention  of  the  Nido, 
or  Corean  syllabary,  one  of  the  simplest  and  most  perfect  “ alpha- 
bets ” in  the  world.  It  expresses  the  sounds  of  the  Corean  lan- 
guage far  better  than  the  kata-kana  of  Japan  expresses  Japanese. 
Chul-chong  seems  to  have  invented  the  Nido  syllabary  by  giving  a 
phonetic  value  to  a certain  number  of  selected  Chinese  characters, 
which  are  ideographs  expressing  ideas  but  not  sounds.  Perhaps 
the  Sanskrit  alphabet  suggested  the  model  both  for  manner  of  use 
and  for  forms  of  letters.  The  Nido  is  composed  almost  entirely 
of  straight  lines  and  circles,  and  the  letters  belonging  to  the  same 
class  of  labials,  dentals,  etc.,  have  a similarity  of  form  easily 
recognized.  The  Coreans  state  that  the  Nido  was  invented  in 
the  early  part  of  the  eighth  century,  and  that  it  was  based  on  the 
Sanskrit  alphabet.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that,  if  the  date  given  be 
true,  the  Japanese  kata-kana,  invented  a century  later,  was  per- 
haps suggested  by  the  Corean. 


48 


COREA. 


One  remarkable  effect  of  the  use  of  phonetic  writing  in  Corea 
and  Japan  has  been  to  stereotype,  and  thus  to  preserve,  the  ancient 
sounds  and  pronunciation  of  words  of  the  Chinese,  which  the  latter 
have  lost.  These  systems  of  writing  outside  of  China  have  served, 
like  Edison’s  phonographs,  in  registering  and  reproducing  the 
manner  in  which  the  Chinese  spoke,  a whole  millennium  ago. 
This  fact  has  already  opened  a fertile  field  of  research,  and  may 
yet  yield  rich  treasures  of  discovery  to  the  sciences  of  history  and 
linguistics. 

Certainly,  however,  we  may  gather  that  the  Tang  era  was  one 
of  learning  and  literary  progress  in  Corea,  as  in  Japan — all  coun- 
tries in  pupilage  to  China  feeling  the  glow  of  literary  splendor  in 
which  the  Middle  Kingdom  was  then  basking.  The  young  nobles 
were  sent  to  obtain  their  education  at  the  court  and  schools  of 
Nanking,  and  the  fair  damsels  of  Shinra  bloomed  in  the  harem  of 
the  emperor.  Imperial  ambassadors  frequently  visited  the  court 
of  this  kingdom  in  the  far  east.  Chinese  costume  and  etiquette 
were,  for  a time,  at  least,  made  the  rigorous  rale  at  court.  On  one 
occasion,  in  653  a.d.,  the  envoy  from  Shinra  to  the  mikado  came 
arrayed  in  Chinese  dress,  and,  neglecting  the  ceremonial  forms  of 
the  Japanese  court,  attempted  to  observe  those  of  China.  The 
mikado  was  highly  irritated  at  the  supposed  insult.  The  premier 
even  advised  that  the  Corean  be  put  to  death  ; but  better  counsels 
prevailed.  During  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  this  flourish- 
ing kingdom  was  well  known  to  the  Arab  geographers,  and  it  is 
evident  that  Mussulman  travellers  visited  Shinra  or  resided  in 
the  cities  of  the  peninsula  for  purposes  of  trade  and  commerce,  as 
has  been  shown  before. 

Kion-chiu,  the  capital  of  Shinra,  was  a brilliant  centre  of  art 
and  science,  of  architecture  and  of  literary  and  religious  light. 
Imposing  temples,  grand  monasteries,  lofty  pagodas,  halls  of 
scholars,  magnificent  gateways  and  towers  adorned  the  city.  In 
campaniles,  equipped  with  water-clocks  and  with  ponderous  bells 
and  gongs,  which,  when  struck,  flooded  the  valleys  and  hill-tops 
with  a rich  resonance,  the  sciences  of  astronomy  and  horoscopy 
were  cultivated.  As  from  a fountain,  rich  streams  of  knowledge 
flowed  from  the  capital  of  Shinra,  both  over  the  peninsula  and  to 
the  court  of  Japan.  Even  after  the  decay  of  Shinra’s  power  in 
the  political  unity  of  the  whole  peninsula,  the  nation  looked  upon 
Kion-chiu  as  a sacred  city.  Her  noble  temples,  halls,  and  towers 
stood  in  honor  and  repair,  enshrining  the  treasures  of  India,  Per- 


EPOCH  OP  THE  THREE  KINGDOMS— SHINRA. 


49 


sia,  and  China,  until  the  ruthless  Japanese  torch  laid  them  in 
ashes  in  1596. 

The  generation  of  Corean  people  during  the  seventh  century, 
when  the  Chinese  hordes  desolated  large  portions  of  the  penin- 
sula and  crushed  out  Hiaksai  and  Korai,  saw  the  borders  of 
Shinra  extending  from  the  Everlasting  White  Mountains  to  the 
Island  of  Tsushima,  and  occupying  the  entire  eastern  half  of  the 
peninsula.  From  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  until  the  tenth 
century,  Shinra  is  the  supreme  state,  and  the  political  power  of 
the  Eastern  Kingdom  is  represented  by  her  alone.  Her  ambition 
tempted,  or  her  Chinese  master  commanded,  her  into  an  invasion 
of  the  kingdom  of  Pu-hai  beyond  her  northern  border,  733  a.d. 
Her  armies  crossed  the  Tumen,  but  met  with  such  spirited  resist- 
ance that  only  half  of  them  returned.  Sliinra’s  desire  of  con- 
quest in  that  direction  was  appeased,  and  for  two  centuries  the 
land  had  rest  from  blood. 

Until  Shinra  fell,  in  934  a.d.,  and  united  Corea  rose  on  the 
ruins  of  the  three  kingdoms,  the  history  of  this  state,  as  found  in 
the  Chinese  annals,  is  simply  a list  of  her  kings,  who,  of  course, 
received  investiture  from  China.  On  the  east,  the  Japanese,  hav- 
ing ceased  to  be  her  pupils  in  civilization  during  times  of  peace, 
as  in  time  of  war  they  were  her  conquerors,  turned  their  atten- 
tion to  Nanking,  receiving  directly  therefrom  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences, instead  of  at  second-hand  through  the  Corean  peninsula. 
They  found  enough  to  do  at  home  in  conquering  all  the  tribes  in 
the  north  and  east  and  centralizing  their  system  of  government 
after  the  model  of  the  Tangs  in  China.  For  these  reasons  the 
sources  of  information  concerning  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries 
fail,  or  rather  it  is  more  exact  to  say  that  the  history  of  Shinra  is 
that  of  peace  instead  of  war.  In  869  we  read  of  pirates  from  her 
shores  descending  upon  the  Japanese  coast  to  plunder  the  tribute 
ships  from  Buzen  province,  and  again,  in  893,  that  a fleet  of  fifty 
junks,  manned  by  these  Corean  rovers,  was  driven  off  from  Tsus- 
hima by  the  Japanese  troops,  with  the  loss  of  three  hundred  slain. 
Another  descent  of  “foreign  pirates,”  most  probably  Coreans, 
upon  Iki  Island,  in  1019,  is  recorded,  the  strangers  being  beaten 
off  by  reinforcements  from  the  mainland.  The  very  existence  of 
these  marauders  is,  perhaps,  a good  indication  that  the  power  of 
the  Shinra  government  was  falling  into  decay,  and  that  lawless- 
ness within  the  kingdom  was  preparing  the  way  for  some  mighty 
hand  to  not  only  seize  the  existing  state,  but  to  unite  all  Corea 


50 


COREA. 


into  political,  as  well  as  geographical,  unity.  In  the  far  north 
another  of  those  great  intermittent  movements  of  population  was 
in  process,  which,  though  destroying  the  kingdom  of  Puhai  beyond 
the  Turnen,  was  to  repeople  the  desolate  land  of  Korai,  and  again 
call  a dead  state  to  aggressive  life.  From  the  origin  to  the  fall  of 
Shinra  there  were  three  royal  families  of  fifty-five  kings,  ruling 
nine  hundred  and  ninety-three  years,  or  seven  years  less  than  a 
millennium. 

Despite  the  modern  official  name  of  the  kingdom,  Cho-sen,  the  people  of 
Corea  still  call  their  country  Gaoli,  or  Korai,  clinging  to  the  ancient  name. 
In  this  popular  usage,  unless  we  are  mistaken,  there  is  a flavor  of  genuine 
patriotism.  Clxo-sen  does  indeed  mean  Morning  Calm,  but  the  impression 
made  on  Western  ears,  and  more  vividly  upon  the  eye  by  means  of  the 
Chinese  characters,  is  apt  to  mislead.  The  term  is  less  a reflection  of  geo- 
graphical position  than  of  the  inward  emotions  of  those  who  first  of  all  were 
more  Chinese  than  Corean  in  spirit,  and  of  a desire  for  China’s  favor.  The 
term  Clio-sen  savors  less  of  dew  and  dawn  than  of  policy  and  prosy  fact.  It  is 
probable,  despite  the  Corean’s  undoubted  love  of  nature  and  beautiful  scenery, 
that  Americans  and  Europeans  have  been  led  astray  as  to  the  real  significance 
of  the  phrase  “morning  calm.”  At  the  bottom,  it  means  rather  peace  with 
China  than  the  serenity  of  dewy  morning.  Audience  of  the  Chinese  emperor 
to  his  vassals  is  always  given  at  daybreak,  and  to  be  graciously  received  after 
the  long  and  tedious  prostrations  is  an  auspicious  beginning  as  of  a day  of  heav- 
en upon  earth.  To  the  founder  of  Corea,  Ki  Tsze,  the  gracious  favor  of  the 
Chow  emperor  was  as  “ morning  calm  and  so  to  Ni  Taijo,  in  1392  A.D.,  was 
the  sunshine  of  the  Ming  emperor’s  favor.  In  both  instances  the  name  Cho- 
sen given  to  their  realm  had,  in  reality,  immediate  reference  to  the  dayspring 
of  China’s  favor,  and  “ the  calm  of  dawn  ” to  the  smile  of  the  emperor. 


CHAPTER  YHI. 


JAPAN  AND  COREA. 

It  is  as  nearly  impossible  to  write  the  history  of  Corea  and  ex- 
clude Japan,  as  to  tell  the  story  of  mediaeval  England  and  leave 
out  France.  Not  alone  does  the  finger  of  sober  history  point  di- 
rectly westward  as  the  immediate  source  of  much  of  what  has  been 
hitherto  deemed  of  pure  Japanese  origin,  but  the  fountain-head  of 
Japanese  mythology  is  found  in  the  Sungari  valley,  or  under  the 
shadows  of  the  Ever- White  Mountains.  The  first  settler  of  Japan, 
like  him  of  Fuyu,  crosses  the  water  upright  upon  the  back  of  a 
fish,  and  brings  the  rudiments  of  literature  and  civilization  with 
him.  The  remarkable  crocodiles  and  sea-monsters,  from  which 
the  gods  and  goddesses  are  born  and  into  which  they  change,  the 
dragons  and  tide-jewels  and  the  various  mystic  symbols  which 
they  employ  to  work  their  spells,  the  methods  of  divination  and 
system  of  prognostics,  the  human  sacrifices  and  the  manner  of 
their  rescue,  seem  to  be  common  to  the  nations  on  both  sides  of 
the  Sea  of  Japan,  and  point  to  a common  heritage  from  the  same 
ancestors.  Language  comes  at  last  with  her  revelations  to  furnish 
proofs  of  identity. 

The  mischievous  Susanoo,  so  famous  in  the  pre-historic  legends, 
told  in  the  Kojiki,  half  scamp,  half  benefactor,  who  planted  all 
Japan  with  trees,  brought  the  seeds  from  which  they  grew  from 
Corea.  His  rescue  of  the  maiden  doomed  to  be  devoured  by  the 
eight-headed  dragon  (emblem  of  water,  and  symbolical  of  the  sea 
and  rivers)  reads  like  a gallant  fellow  saving  one  of  the  human 
beings  who  for  centuries,  until  the  now  ruling  dynasty  abolished 
the  custom,  were  sacrificed  to  the  sea  on  the  Corean  coast  front- 
ing Japan.  In  Kioto,  on  Gi-on  Street,  there  is  a temple  which 
tradition  declares  was  “founded  in  656  a.d.  by  a Corean  envoy  in 
honor  of  Susanoo,  to  whom  the  name  of  Go-dzu  Tenno  (Heavenly 
King  of  Go-dzu)  was  given,  because  he  was  originally  worshipped 
in  Go-dzu  Mountain  in  Corea.” 


COREA. 


f)  2 


Dogs  are  not  held  in  any  honor  in  Japan,  as  they  were  an- 
ciently in  Kokorai.  Except  the  silk-haired,  pug-nosed,  and  large- 
eyed chin,  which  the  average  native  does  not  conceive  as  canine, 
the  dogs  run  at  large,  ownerless,  as  in  the  Levant ; and  share  the 
work  of  street  scavenging  with  the  venerated  crows.  Yet  there 
are  two  places  of  honor  in  which  the  golden  and  stone  effigies 
of  this  animal — highly  idealized  indeed,  hut  still  inu — are  en- 
throned. 

The  ama-inu,  or  heavenly  dogs,  in  fanciful  sculp ture  of  stone 
or  gilt  wood,  represent  guardian  dogs.  They  are  found  in  pairs 
guarding  the  entrances  to  miya  or  temples.  As  all  miya  (the 
name  also  of  the  mikado’s  residence)  were  originally  intended  to 
serve  as  a model  or  copy  of  the  palace  of  the  mikado  and  a re- 
minder of  the  divinity  of  his  person  and  throne,  it  is  possible  that 
the  ama-inu  imitated  the  golden  Corean  dogs  which  support  and 
guard  the  throne  of  Japan.  Access  to  the  shrine  was  had  only  by 
passing  these  two  heavenly  dogs.  These  creatures  are  quite  dis- 
tinct from  the  “dogs  of  Fo,”  or  the  “lions”  that  flank  the  gate- 
ways of  the  magistrate’s  office  in  China.  Those  who  have  had 
audience  of  the  mikado  in  the  imperial  throne-room,  as  the  writer 
had  in  January,  1873,  have  noticed  at  the  foot  of  the  throne,  serv- 
ing  as  legs  or  supports  to  the  golden  chair,  on  which  His  Majesty 
sits,  two  dogs  sitting  on  their  haunches,  and  upright  on  their  fore- 
legs. These  fearful-looking  creatures,  with  wide-open  mouths, 
hair  curled  in  tufts,  especially  around  the  front  neck,  and  with 
tails  bifurcated  at  their  upright  ends,  are  called  “Corean  dogs.” 
For  what  reason  placed  there  we  know  not.  It  may  be  in  witness 
of  the  conquest  of  Shinra  by  the  empress  Jingu,  who  called  the 
king  of  Shinra  “ the  dog  of  Japan,”  or  it  may  point  to  some  for- 
gotten symbolism  in  the  past,  or  typify  the  vassalage  of  Corea — so 
long  a fundamental  dogma  in  Japanese  politics.  It  is  certainly 
strange  to  see  this  creature,  so  highly  honored  in  Fuyu  and  dis- 
honored among  the  vulgar  in  Japan,  placed  beneath  the  mikado’s 
throne. 

The  Japanese  laid  claim  to  Corea  from  the  second  century 
mi  til  the  27th  of  February,  1876.  On  that  day  the  mikado’s  min- 
ister plenipotentiary  signed  the  treaty,  recognizing  Cho-sen  as  an 
independent  nation.  Through  all  the  seventeen  centuries  which, 
according  to  their  annals,  elapsed  since  their  armies  first  com- 
pelled the  vassalage  of  their  neighbor,  the  Japanese  regarded  the 
states  of  Corea  as  tributary.  Time  and  again  they  enforced  their 


JAPAN  AND  COREA. 


53 


claim  with  bloody  invasion,  and  when  through  a more  enlightened 
policy  the  rulers  voluntarily  acknowledged  their  former  enemy  as 
an  equal,  the  decision  cost  Japan  almost  immediately  afterward 
seven  months  of  civil  war,  20,000  lives,  and  fifty  millions  of  dol- 
lars in  treasure.  The  mainspring  of  the  “ Satsuma  rebellion  ” of 
1877  was  the  official  act  of  friendship  by  treaty,  and  the  refusal  of 
the  Tokio  Government  to  make  war  on  Corea. 

From  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  until  the  fif- 
teenth century  the  relations  between  the  two  nations  were  very 
close  and  active.  Alternate  peace  and  war,  mutual  assistance  given, 
and  embassies  sent  to  and  fro  are  recorded  with  lively  frequency 
in  the  early  Japanese  annals,  especially  the  Nihongi  and  Kojiki. 
A more  or  less  continual  stream  of  commerce  and  emigration 
seems  to  have  set  in  from  the  peninsula.  Some  writers  of  high 
authority,  who  are  also  comparative  students  of  the  languages  of 
the  two  countries,  see  in  these  events  the  origin  of  the  modern 
Japanese.  They  interpret  them  to  mean  nothing  less  than  the 
peopling  of  the  archipelago  by  continental  tribes  passing  through 
the  peninsula,  and  landing  in  Japan  at  various  points  along  the 
coast  from  Kiushiu  to  Kaga.  Some  of  them  think  that  Japan  was 
settled  wholly  and  only  by  Tungusic  races  of  Northeastern  Asia 
coming  from  or  through  Corea.  They  base  their  belief  not  only 
on  the  general  stream  and  tendency  of  Japanese  tradition,  but  also 
and  more  on  the  proofs  of  language. 

The  first  mention  of  Corea  in  the  Japanese  annals  occurs  in 
the  fifth  volume  of  the  Nihongi,  and  is  the  perhaps  half-fabulous 
narrative  of  ancient  tradition.  In  the  65th  year  of  the  reign  of 
the  tenth  mikado,  Sujin  (97-30  b.c.),  a boat  filled  with  people  from 
the  west  appeared  off  the  southern  point  of  Chd-shiu,  near  the 
modern  town  of  Shimonoseki.  They  would  not  land  there,  but 
steered  their  course  from  cape  to  cape  along  the  coast  until  they 
reached  the  Bay  of  Keji  no  Wara  in  Echizen,  near  the  modern 
city  of  Tsuruga.  Here  they  disembarked  and  announced  them- 
selves from  Amana  Sankan  (Arnana  of  the  Three  Han  or  King- 
doms) in  Southern  Corea.  They  unpacked  their  treasures  of  finely 
wrought  goods,  and  their  leader  made  offerings  to  the  mikado 
Sujin.  These  immigrants  remained  five  years  in  Echizen,  not 
far  from  the  city  of  Fukui,  till  28  b.c.  Before  leaving  Japan, 
they  pi-esented  themselves  in  the  capital  for  a farewell  audience. 
The  mikado  Mimaki,  having  died  three  years  before,  the  visi- 
tors were  requested  on  their  return  to  call  their  country  Mimana, 


H4 


COREA. 


after  tlieir  patron,  as  a memorial  of  their  stay  in  Japan.  To 
this  they  assented,  and  on  their  return  named  their  district 
Mimana. 

Some  traditions  state  that  the  first  Corean  envoy  had  a horn 
growing  out  of  his  forehead,  and  that  since  his  time,  and  on  ac- 
count of  it,  the  bay  near  which  he  dwelt  was  named  Tsunaga  (Horn 
Bay)  now  corrupted  into  Tsuruga. 

It  may  be  added  that  nearly  all  mythical  characters  or  heroes 
in  Japanese  and  Chinese  history  are  represented  as  having  one  or 
more  very  short  horns  growing  out  of  their  heads,  and  are  so  de- 
lineated in  native  art. 

Six  years  later  an  envoy  from  Shinra  arrived,  also  bringing  pre- 
sents to  the  mikado.  These  consisted  of  mirrors,  jade  stone, 
swords,  and  other  precious  articles,  then  common  in  Corea  but 
doubtless  new  in  Japan. 

According  to  the  tradition  of  the  Kojiki  (Book  of  Ancient  Le- 
gends) the  fourteenth  mikado,  Chiu-ai  (a.d.  192-200)  was  holding 
his  court  at  Tsuruga  in  Ecliizen,  in  a.d.  194,  when  a rebellion 
broke  out  in  Kiushiu.  He  marched  at  once  into  Kiusliiu,  against 
the  rebels,  and  there  fell  by  disease  or  arrow.  His  consort,  Jingu 
IvogO,  had  a presentiment  that  he  ought  not  to  go  into  Kiushiu, 
as  he  would  surely  fail  if  he  did,  but  that  he  should  strike  at  the 
root  of  the  trouble  and  sail  at  once  to  the  west. 

After  his  death  she  headed  the  Japanese  army  and,  leading  the 
troops  in  person,  quelled  the  revolt.  She  then  ordered  all  the 
available  forces  of  her  realm  to  assemble  for  an  invasion  of  Shinra. 
Japanese  modern  writers  have  laid  great  stress  upon  the  fact  that 
Shinra  began  the  aggressions  which  brought  on  war,  and  in  this 
fact  justify  Jingu’s  action  and  Japan’s  right  to  hold  Corea  as  an 
honestly  acquired  possession. 

All  being  ready,  the  doughty  queen  regent  set  sail  from  the 
coast  of  Hizen,  in  Japan,  in  the  tenth  month  a.d.  202,  and  beached 
the  fleet  safely  on  the  coast  of  Shinra.  The  King  of  Shinra,  accus- 
tomed to  meet  only  with  men  from  the  rude  tribes  of  Kiushiu,  was 
surprised  to  see  so  well-appointed  an  army  and  so  large  a fleet  from 
a land  to  the  eastward.  Struck  with  terror  he  resolved  at  once  to 
submit.  Tying  his  hands  in  token  of  submission  and  in  presence 
of  the  queen  Jingu,  he  declared  himself  the  slave  of  Japan.  Jingu 
caused  her  bow  to  be  suspended  over  the  gate  of  the  palace  of  the 
king  in  sign  of  his  submission.  It  is  even  said  that  she  wrote 
on  the  gate  “The  King  of  Shinra  is  the  dog  of  Japan.”  Perhaps 


JAPAN  AND  COREA. 


55 


these  are  historic  words,  which  find  their  meaning  to-day  in  the 
two  golden  dogs  forming  part  of  the  mikado’s  throne,  like  the 
Scotch  “ stone  of  Scone,”  under  the  coronation  chair  in  Westmin- 
ster Abbey. 

The  followers  of  Jingu  evidently  expected  a rich  booty,  but 
after  so  peaceful  a conquest  the  empress  ordered  that  no  looting 
should  be  allowed,  and  no  spoil  taken  except  the  treasures  consti- 
tuting tribute.  She  restored  the  king  to  the  throne  as  her  vassal, 
and  the  tribute  was  then  collected  and  laden  on  eighty  boats  with 
hostages  for  future  annual  tribute.  The  offerings  comprised  pic- 
tures, works  of  elegance  and  art,  mirrors,  jade,  gold,  silver,  and 
silk  fabrics. 

Preparations  were  now  made  to  conquer  Hiaksai  also,  when 
Jingu  was  surprised  to  receive  the  voluntary  submission  and  offers 
of  tribute  of  this  country. 

The  Japanese  army  remained  in  Corea  only  two  months,  but 
this  brief  expedition  led  to  great  and  lasting  results.  It  gave  the 
Japanese  a keener  thirst  for  martial  glory,  it  opened  their  eyes  to 
a higher  state  of  arts  and  civilization.  From  this  time  forth  there 
flowed  into  the  islands  a constant  stream  of  Corean  emigrants,  who 
gave  a great  impulse  to  the  spirit  of  improvement  in  Japan.  The 
Japanese  accept  the  story  of  Jingu  and  her  conquest  as  sound 
history,  and  adorn  their  greenback  paper  money  with  pictures  of 
her  foreign  exploits.  Critics  reject  many  elements  in  the  tradi- 
tion, such  as  her  controlling  the  waves  and  drowning  the  Shinra 
army  by  the  jewels  of  the  ebbing  and  the  flowing  tide,1  and  the 
delay  of  her  accouchement  by  a magic  stone  carried  in  her  girdle. 
The  Japanese  ascribe  the  glory  of  victory  to  her  then  unborn  babe, 
afterward  deified  as  Ojin,  god  of  war,  and  worshipped  by  Buddhists 
as  Hacliiman  or  the  Eight-bannered  Buddha.  Yet  many  temples 
are  dedicated  to  Jingu,  one  especially  famous  is  near  Hiogo,  and 
Koraiji  (Corean  village)  near  Oiso,  a few  miles  from  Yokohama, 
has  another  which  was  at  first  built  in  her  honor.  Evidently  the 
core  of  the  narrative  of  conquest  is  fact. 

At  the  time  when  the  faint,  dim  light  of  trustworthy  tradition 
dawns,  we  find  the  people  inhabiting  the  Japanese  archipelago  to 
be  roughly  divided,  as  to  their  political  status,  into  four  classes. 

In  the  central  province  around  Kioto  ruled  a kingly  house — 


! The  story,  told  in  full  in  the  Heike  Monogatari,  is  given  in  English  in 
“Japanese  Fairy  World.” 


56 


COREA. 


the  mikado  and  his  family — with  tributary  nobles  or  feudal  chiefs 
holding  their  lands  on  military  tenure.  This  is  the  ancient  classic 
land  and  realm  of  Yamato.  Four  other  provinces  adjoining  it 
have  always  formed  the  core  of  the  empire,  and  are  called  the  Go- 
Kinai,  or  five  home  provinces,  suggesting  the  five  clans  of  Kokorai. 

To  the  north  and  east  stretched  the  little  known  and  less  civil- 
ized region,  peopled  by  tribes  of  kindred  blood  and  speech,  who 


spoke  nearly  the  same  language  as  the  Yamato  tribes,  and  who 
had  probably  come  at  some  past  time  from  the  same  ancestral 
seats  in  Manchuria,  and  called  the  Kuan-to,  or  region  east  (to)  of 
the  barrier  ( kuan ) at  Ozaka  ; or  poetically  Adzuma. 

Still  further  north,  on  the  main  island  and  in  Yezo,  lived  the 
Ainos  or  Ebisu,  probably  the  aborigines  of  the  soil — the  straight- 
eyed men  whose  descendants  still  live  in  Yezo  and  the  Kuriles. 


JAPAN  AND  COREA. 


57 


The  northern  and  eastern  tribes  were  first  conquered  and  thor- 
oughly subdued  by  the  Yamato  tribes,  after  which  all  the  far  nortl 
was  overrun  and  the  Ainos  subjugated. 

In  the  extreme  south  of  the  main  island  of  Japan  and  in  Kiu- 
shiu,  then  called  Kumaso  by  the  Yamato  people,  lived  a numbrtr 
of  tribes  of  perhaps  the  same  ethnic  stock  as  the  Yamato  Japan- 
ese, but  further  removed.  Their  progenitors  had  probably  de- 
scended from  Manchuria  through  Corea  to  Japan.  Their  blood  and 
speech,  however,  were  more  mixed  by  infusions  from  Malay  and 
southern  elements.  Into  Kiushiu — it  being  nearest  to  the  conti- 
nent— the  peninsulars  were  constantly  coming  and  mingling  -with 
the  islanders. 

The  allegiance  of  the  Kiushiu  tribes  to  the  royal  house  of  Ya- 
mato was  of  a very  loose  kind.  The  history  of  these  early  centu- 
ries, as  shown  in  the  annals  of  Nihon,  is  but  a series  of  revolts 
against  the  distant  warrior  mikado,  whose  life  was  chiefly  one  of 
war.  He  had  often  to  leave  his  seat  in  the  central  island  to  march 
at  the  head  of  his  followers  to  put  down  rebellions  or  to  conquer 
new  tribes.  Over  these,  when  subdued,  a prince  chosen  by  the 
conqueror  was  set  to  rule,  who  became  a feudatox-y  of  the  mikado. 

The  attempts  of  the  Yamato  sovereign  to  wholly  reduce  the 
Kiushiu  txibes  to  submission,  were  gi'eatly  frustrated  by  their 
stout  resistance,  fomented  by  emissaries  from  Shinra,  who  insti- 
gated them  to  “revolt,”  while  adventurers  from  the  Corean  main- 
land came  over  in  lai'ge  numbers  and  joined  the  “rebels,”  who 
were,  in  one  sense,  their  own  compati’iots. 

From  the  time  of  Jingu,  if  the  eai’ly  dates  in  Japanese  history 
are  to  be  trusted,  may  be  said  to  date  that  belief,  so  firmly  fixed 
in  the  Japanese  mind,  that  Coi*ea  is,  and  always  was  since  Jingu’s 
time,  a tributary  and  dependency  of  Japan.  This  idea,  akin  to 
that  of  the  claim  of  the  English  kings  on  France,  led  to  fi'equent 
expeditions  from  the  third  to  the  sixteenth  century,  and  which, 
even  as  late  as  1874,  1875,  and  1877,  lay  at  the  l’oot  of  three  civil 
wax's. 

All  these  expeditions,  sometimes  xxational,  sometimes  filibuster- 
ing, served  to  drain  the  resources  of  Japan,  though  many  impulses 
to  development  and  higher  civilization  were  thus  gained,  espe 
daily  in  the  eax’lier  centuries.  It  seemed,  xxntil  1877,  almost  im- 
possible to  eradicate  fx-om  the  military  mind  of  Japan  the  convic- 
tion that  to  surrender  Corea  was  cowardice  and  a stain  on  the 
national  honoxv  But  time  will  6how,  as  it  showed  centuries  ago 


58 


COREA. 


in  England,  that  the  glory  and  prosperity  of  the  conqueror  were 
increased,  not  diminished,  when  Japan  relinquished  all  claim  on 
her  continental  neighbor  and  treated  her  as  an  equal. 

The  Coreans  taught  the  Japanese  the  arts  of  peace,  while  the 
Coreans  profited  from  their  neighbors  to  improve  in  the  business  of 
war.  We  read  that,  in  316  a.d.,  a Corean  ambassador,  bringing 
the  usual  tribute,  presented  to  the  mikado  a shield  of  iron  which 
he  believed  to  be  invulnerable  to  Japanese  arrows.  The  mikado 
called  on  one  of  his  favorite  marksmen  to  practice  in  the  presence 
of  the  envoy.  The  shield  was  suspended,  and  the  archer,  drawing 
bow,  sent  a shaft  through  the  iron  skin  of  the  buckler  to  the  as- 
tonishment of  the  visitor.  In  all  their  battles  the  Coreans  were 
rarely  able  to  stand  in  open  field  before  the  archers  from  over  the 
sea,  who  sent  true  cloth-yard  shafts  from  their  oak  and  bamboo 
bows. 

The  paying  of  tribute  to  a foreign  country  is  never  a pleasant 
duty  to  perform,  though  in  times  of  prosperity  and  good  harvests 
it  is  not  difficult.  In  periods  of  scarcity  from  bad  crops  it  is  well 
nigh  impossible.  To  insist  upon  its  payment  is  to  provoke  rebel- 
lion. Instances  are  indeed  given  in  Japanese  history  where  the 
conquerors  not  only  remitted  the  tribute  but  even  sent  ship  loads 
of  rice  and  barley  to  the  starving  Coreans.  When,  however,  for 
reasons  not  deemed  sufficient,  or  out  of  sheer  defiance,  their  vas- 
sals refused  to  discharge  their  dues,  they  again  felt  the  iron  hand 
of  Japan  in  war.  During  the  reign  of  Yuriaki,  the  twenty-second 
mikado  (a.d.  457-477),  the  three  states  failed  to  pay  tribute.  A 
Japanese  army  landed  in  Corea,  and  conquering  Hiaksai,  com- 
pelled her  to  return  to  her  duty.  The  campaign  was  less  suc- 
cessful in  Shinra  and  Korai,  for  after  the  Japanese  had  left  the 
Corean  shores  the  “ tribute  ” was  sent  only  at  intervals,  and  the 
temper  of  the  half-conquered  people  was  such  that  other  expe- 
ditions had  to  be  despatched  to  inflict  chastisement  and  compel 
payment. 

The  gallant  but  vain  succor  given  by  the  Japanese  to  Hiaksai 
during  the  war  with  the  Chinese,  in  the  sixth  century,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  destruction  of  the  little  kingdom,  has  already  been 
detailed.  Among  the  names,  forever  famous  in  Japanese  art  and 
tradition,  of  those  who  took  part  in  this  expedition  are  Sate-hiko 
and  Kasi-wade.  The  former  sailed  away  from  Hizen  in  the  year 
536,  as  one  of  the  mikado’s  body-guard  to  assist  their  allies  the 
men  of  Hiaksai.  A poetical  legend  recounts  that  his  wife,  Sayo- 


JAPAN  AND  COREA. 


59 


liime,  climbed  the  hills  of  Matsura  to  catch  the  Last  glimpse  of  his 
receding  sails.  Thus  intently  gazing,  -with  straining  eyes,  she 
turned  to  stone.  The  peasants  of  the  neighborhood  still  discern 
in  the  weathem-wom  rocks,  high  up  on  the  cliffs,  the  figure  of  a 
lady  in  long  trailing  court  dress  with  face  and  figure  eagerly  bent 
over  the  western  wares.  Not  only  is  the  name  Matsura  Sayohime 
the  symbol  of  devoted  love,  but  from  this  incident  the  famous 
author  Bakin  constructed  his  romance  of  “The  Great  Stone  Spirit 
of  Matsura.” 

Kasiwade,  who  crossed  over  to  do  “frontier  service  ” in  the 
peninsula  a few  years  later,  was  driven  ashore  by  a snow  squall  at 
an  unknown  paid  of  the  coast.  "While  in  this  defenceless  condi- 
tion his  camp  was  invaded  by  a tiger,  which  earned  off  and  de- 
voured his  son,  a lad  of  tender  age.  Kasiwade  at  once  gave  chase 
and  followed  the  beast  to  the  mountains  and  into  a cave.  The 
tiger  leaping  out  upon  him,  the  wary  warrior  bearded  him  with 
his  left  hand,  and  buried  his  dirk  in  his  throat.  Then  finish- 
ing him  with  his  sabre,  he  skinned  the  brute  and  sent  home  the 
trophy.  From  olden  times  Cho-sen  is  known  to  Japanese  chil- 
dren only  as  a land  of  tigers,  while  to  the  soldier  the  “marshal's 
baton  carried  in  his  knapsack  ” is  a tiger-skin  scabbard,  the  emblem 
and  possession  of  rank. 

As  the  imperial  court  of  Japan  looked  upon  Sliinra  and  Hiak- 
sai  as  outlying  vassal  states,  the  frequent  military  movements 
across  the  sea  were  reckoned  under  “frontier  service,”  like  that 
beyond  the  latitude  of  Sado  in  the  north  of  the  main  island,  or  in 
Kiushiu  in  the  south.  “ The  three  countries  ” of  Corea  were  far 
nearer  and  more  familial*  to  the  Japanese  soldiers  than  were  Tezo 
or  the  Kiu  Kiu  Islands,  which  were  Hot  part  of  the  empire  till 
several  centuries  afterward.  Kara  Kuni,  the  country  of  Kara 
(a  corruption  of  Korai  ?),  as  they  now  call  China,  was  then  ap- 
plied to  Corea.  Not  a little  of  classic  poetry  and  legend  in 
the  Tamato  language  refers  to  this  western  frontier  beyond  the 
sea.  The  elegy  on  Hiemaro,  the  soldier-prince,  who  died  at  Iki 
Island  on  the  voyage  over,  and  that  on  the  death  of  the  Corean 
nun  Riguwan,  have  been  put  into  English  verse  by  Mr.  Cham- 
berlain (named  after  the  English  explorer  and  writer  on  Corea, 
Basil  Hall),  in  his  “Classical  Poetry  of  the  Japanese.”  This 
Corean  lady  left  her  home  in  714,  and  for  twenty-one  year's  found 
a home  with  the  mikado’s  Prime  Minister,  Otomo,  and  his  wife,  at 
Kara.  She  died  in  735,  while  her  hosts  were  away  at  the  mineral 


COREA. 


GO 

springs  of  Arima,  near  Kobe  ; and  the  elegy  was  written  by  their 
daughter.  One  stanza  describes  her  life  in  the  new  country. 

“ And  here  with  aliens  thou  didst  choose  to  dwell, 

Year  in,  year  out,  in  deepest  sympathy ; 

And  here  thou  builtest  thee  a holy  cell, 

And  so  the  peaceful  years  went  gliding  by.” 

An  interesting  field  of  research  is  still  open  to  the  scholar  who 
will  point  out  all  the  monuments  of  Corean  origin  or  influence  in 
the  mikado’s  empire,  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  household  customs, 
diet  and  dress,  or  architecture  ; in  short,  what  by  nature  or  the 
hand  of  man  has  been  brought  to  the  land  of  Sunrise  from  that  of 
Morning  Calm.  One  of  the  Corean  princes,  who  settled  in  Japan 
early  in  the  seventh  century,  founded  a family  which  afterward 
ruled  the  famous  province  of  Nagato  or  Choshiu.  One  of  his  de- 
scendants welcomed  Francis  Xavier,  and  aided  his  work  by  gifts  of 
ground  and  the  privilege  of  preaching.  Many  of  the  temples  in 
Kioto  still  contain  images,  paintings,  and  altar  furniture  brought 
from  Corea.  The  “Pheasant  Bridge ’’still  keeps  its  name  from 
bygone  centuries  ; in  a garden  near  by  pheasants  were  kept  for  the 
supply  of  the  tables  of  the  Corean  embassies.  The  Arab  and  Per- 
sian treasures  of  art  and  fine  workmanship,  in  the  imperial  archives 
and  museums  of  Nara,  which  have  excited  the  wonder  of  foreign 
visitors,  are  most  probably  among  the  gifts  or  purchases  from 
Shinra,  wrhere  these  imports  were  less  rare.  A Buddhist  monk 
named  Shiulio  has  gathered  up  the  traditions  and  learning  of  the 
subject,  so  far  as  it  illustrated  his  faith,  and  in  “Precious  Jewels 
from  a Neighboring  Country,”  published  in  1586,  has  written  a 
narrative  of  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  from  Corea  and  its  liter- 
aiy  and  missionary  influences  upon  Japan. 

Under  the  chapters  on  Art  and  Religion  we  shall  resume  this 
topic.  As  earnestly  as  the  Japanese  are  now  availing  themselves  of 
the  science  and  progress  of  Christendom  in  this  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, so  earnestly  did  they  borrow  the  culture  of  the  west,  that  is 
of  Corea  and  China,  a thousand  years  ago. 

The  many  thousands  of  Coreans,  who,  during  the  first  ten  centu- 
ries of  the  Christian  era,  but  especially  in  the  seventh,  eighth,  and 
ninth,  settled  in  Japan,  lived  peaceably  with  the  people  of  their 
adopted  country,  and  loyally  obeyed  the  mikado’s  rule.  An  exception 
to  this  course  occurred  in  820,  when  seven  hundred  men  who  some 
time  before  had  come  from  Shinra  to  Totomi  and  Suruga  revolted, 


JAPAN  AND  COREA. 


61 


killed  many  of  the  Japanese,  seized  the  rice  in  the  store-houses, 
and  put  to  sea  to  escape.  The  people  of  Musashi  and  Sagami  pur- 
sued and  attacked  them,  putting  many  of  them  to  death. 

The  general  history  of  the  Coreans  in  Japan  divides  itself  into 
two  parts.  Those  who  came  as  voluntary  immigrants  in  time  of 
peace  were  in  most  cases  skilled  workmen  or  farmers,  who  settled 
in  lands  or  in  villages  granted  them,  and  were  put  on  political  and 
social  equality  with  the  mikado’s  subjects.  They  founded  indus- 
tries, intermarried  with  the  natives,  and  their  identity  has  been 
lost  in  the  general  body  of  the  Japanese  people. 

With  the  prisoners  taken  in  war,  and  with  the  laborers  in> 
pressed  into  their  service  and  carried  off  by  force,  the  case  was  far 
different.  These  latter  were  set  apart  in  villages  by  themselves — 
an  outcast  race  on  no  social  equality  with  the  people.  At  first 
they  were  employed  to  feed  the  imperial  falcons,  or  do  such 
menial  work,  but  under  the  ban  of  Buddhism,  which  forbids  the 
destruction  of  life  and  the  handling  of  flesh,  they  became  an  ac- 
cursed race,  the  “ Etas  ” or  pariahs  of  the  nation.  They  were  the 
butchers,  skinners,  leather-makers,  and  those  whose  business  it  was 
to  handle  corpses  of  criminals  and  all  other  defiling  things.  They 
exist  to-day,  not  greatly  changed  in  blood,  though  in  costume,  lan- 
guage, and  general  appearance,  it  is  not  possible  to  distinguish 
them  from  Japanese  of  purest  blood.  By  the  humane  edict  of  the 
mikado,  in  1868,  granting  them  all  the  rights  of  citizenship,  their 
social  condition  has  greatly  improved. 

From  the  ninth  century  onward  to  the  sixteenth,  the  relations 
of  the  two  countries  seem  to  be  unimportant.  Japan  was  engaged 
in  conquering  northward  the  barbarians  of  her  main  island  and 
Yezo.  Her  intercourse,  both  political  and  religious,  grew  to  be 
so  direct  with  the  court  of  China,  that  Corea,  in  the  Japanese 
annals,  sinks  out  of  sight  except  at  rare  intervals.  Nihon  in- 
creased in  wealth  and  civilization  while  Cho-sen  remained  station- 
ary or  retrograded.  In  the  nineteenth  century  the  awakened  Sun- 
rise Kingdom  has  seen  her  former  self  in  the  hermit  nation,  and 
has  stretched  forth  willing  hands  to  do  for  her  neighbor  now,  what 
Corea  did  for  Japan  in  centuries  long  gone  by. 

Still,  it  must  never  be  forgotten  that  Corea  was  not  only  the 
bridge  on  which  civilization  crossed  from  China  to  the  archipelago, 
but  was  most  probably  the  pathway  of  migration  by  which  the 
rulers  of  the  race  now  inhabiting  Nihon  reached  it  from  their  an- 
cestral seats  around  the  Sungari  and  the  Ever- White  Mountains. 


G2 


COREA. 


Time,  it  is  not  absolutely  certain  whether  the  homeland  of  the  mi- 
kado’s ancestors  lay  southward  in  the  sea,  or  westward  among  the 
mountains,  but  that  the  mass  of  the  Corean  and  Japanese  people 
are  more  closely  allied  in  blood  than  either  are  with  the  Chinese, 
Manchius,  or  Malays,  seems  to  be  proved,  not  only  by  language 
and  physical  traits,  but  by  the  whole  course  of  the  history  of  both 
nations,  and  by  the  testimony  of  the  Chinese  records.  Both  Co- 
reans  and  Japanese  have  inherited  the  peculiar  institutions  of  their 
Fuyu  ancestors — that  race  which  alone  of  all  the  peoples  sprung 
from  Manchuria  migrated  toward  the  rising,  instead  of  toward  the 
setting,  sun. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


KORAI,  OR  UNITED  COREA. 

The  fertile  and  well-watered  region  drained  by  the  Amur  River 
md  its  tributaries,  stretching  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  Lake  Bai- 
kal, covers  the  ancestral  seats  of  many  nations,  and  is  perhaps  the 
home  of  nations  yet  to  arise.  It  may  be  likened  to  a great  inter- 
mittent geyser-spring  which,  at  intervals,  overflows  with  terrific 
force  and  volume.  The  movements  of  population  southward  seem, 
on  a review  of  Chinese  and  Corean  history,  almost  as  regular  as  a 
law  of  nature.  As  the  conquerors  from  the  central  Asian  plateaus 
have  over  and  over  again  descended  into  India,  as  the  barbarians 
overran  the  Roman  empire,  so  out  of  the  region  drained  by  the 
Amur  and  its  tributaries  have  burst  forth,  time  and  again,  floods  of 
conquest  to  overwhelm  the  rich  plains  of  China.  Or,  if  we  regard 
the  flowery  and  grassy  lands  of  Manchuria  and  beyond  as  a great 
hive,  full  of  busy  life  which,  from  the  pressure  of  increasing  num- 
bers, must  swarm  off  to  relieve  the  old  home,  we  shall  have  a true 
illustration.  Time  and  again  have  clouds  of  human  bees,  with  the 
sting  of  their  swords  and  the  honey  of  their  new  energy,  issued 
from  this  ancient  hive.  The  swarms  receive  different  names  in 
history : Hun,  Turk,  Tartar,  Mongol,  Manchiu,  but  they  all  emerge 
from  the  same  source,  giving  or  receiving  dynastic  names,  but 
being  in  reality  Tungusic  people  of  the  same  basic  stock. 

A tribe  inhabiting  one  of  the  ravines  or  rich  river  flats  of  the 
Sungari  region  increases  in  wealth  and  numbers.  A powerful 
chief  leads  them  to  war  and  victory.  Tribes  and  lands  are  an- 
nexed. Martial  valor,  wealth,  and  strength  increase.  Ambition 
and  the  pressure  of  numbers  tempt  to  farther  conquest.  Over 
and  beyond  the  Great  Wall  is  the  ever-glittering  prize — teeming 
China.  The  march  begins  southward.  After  many  a battle,  and 
only,  it  may  be,  after  a generation  of  war  against  the  imperial  le- 
gions beyond  the  frontiers,  the  goal  is  reached.  The  Middle 
Kingdom  is  conquered  and  a new  dynasty  sits  on  the  Dragon 


01 


COREA. 


Throne,  until  long  peace  enervates  and  luxury  weakens.  Then 
out  of  the  old  northern  seats  of  population  rolls  a new  flood  of 
conquest,  and  a new  swarm  of  conquerors  is  hived  off. 

Thus  we  see  the  original  land  embracing  the  Amur  and  Sun- 
gari valleys  has  had  its  periods  of  power  and  decay,  of  historical 
and  unhistorical  life.  Unity  and  movement  make  history,  disin- 
tegration and  apathy  cause  the  page  of  history  to  be  blank.  But 
the  land  is  still  there  with  the  people  and  the  possibilities  of  the 
future. 

In  spite  of  the  associations  of  hoary  antiquity  that  clustei 
around  Asiatic  countries,  the  reader  of  history  does  not  expect  to 
hear  of  single  empires  enduring  through  many  centuries.  With 
the  exception  of  Japan,  no  nation  of  Asia  can  show  a dynastic  line 
extending  through  a millennium.  The  empires  founded  by  Asia- 
tic conquerors  are  short-lived.  The  countries  and  the  people 
remain,  but  the  rulers  constantly  change,  and  the  building  up, 
flourishing,  decay,  and  dissolution  suggest  the  seasons  rather  than 
the  centuries.  No  enduring  political  fabrics,  like  those  of  Rome 
or  Britain,  are  known  in  Asia.  Though  China  and  India  abide  like 
the  oak,  their  rulers  change  like  the  leaves.  Socially,  these  coun- 
tries are  the  symbols  of  petrifaction,  politically  they  are  as  the 
kaleidoscope.  From  this  law  of  continuous  political  mutation, 
Corea  has  not  been  free. 

In  one  of  these  epochs  of  historical  movement,  at  the  opening 
of  the  eighth  century,  there  arose  the  kingdom  of  Puhai,  the  capi- 
tal of  which  was  the  present  city  of  Kirin.  Its  northern  bounda- 
ries first  touched  the  Sungari,  and  later  the  Amur,  shifting  to  the 
Sungari  again.  Its  southern  border  was  at  first  the  Tumen  River, 
and  later  the  modem  province  of  Ham-kiung  was  included  in  it. 
Lines  drawn  southwardly  through  Lake  Hanka  on  the  east,  and 
Mukden  on  the  west,  would  enclose  its  longitude.  Its  life  lasted 
from  about  700  to  925  a.d.  This  kingdom  was  continually  on  bad 
terms  with  China,  and  the  Tang  emperors  for  nearly  a century  at- 
tempted to  crush  it  into  vassalage.  Puhai  made  brave  resistance, 
being  aided  not  only  by  the  large  numbers  of  Koraians,  who  had 
fled  when  beaten  by  the  Chinese  across  the  Tumen  River,  but  also 
by  the  Japanese,  whose  supremacy  they  acknowledged  by  payment 
of  tribute.  With  the  latter  their  relations  were  always  of  a peace- 
ful and  pleasant  nature,  and  the  correspondence  and  other  docu- 
ments of  the  visiting  embassies  to  the  mikado’s  court  are  still  pre- 
served in  Japan. 


KORAI,  OR  UNITED  COREA. 


Co 

Yet  though  Puhai  was  able  to  resist  China  and  hold  part  of 
the  old  territory  of  Korai,  it  fell  before  the  persistent  attacks  of 
the  Kitan  tribes,  whose  empire,  lasting  from  907  to  1125  a.d., 
stretched  from  west  of  Lake  Baikal  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  tenth  century  this  Puhai  kingdom,  whose  age 
was  scarcely  two  centuries,  melted  away  again  into  tribes  and  vil- 
lages, each  with  its  chief.  The  country  being  without  political 
unity  returned  to  unhistorical  obscurity,  as  part  of  the  Kitan  em- 
pire. Without  crossing  the  Tumen,  to  enter  China  by  way  of 
Corea,  the  Kitans  marched  at  once  around  the  Ever- White  Moun- 
tains and  down  the  Liao  Tung  valley  into  China. 

The  breaking  up  of  Puhai  was  not  without  its  influence  on  the 
Corean  peninsula.  As  early  as  the  ninth  century  thousands  of 
refugees,  driven  before  the  Kitans  or  dissatisfied  with  nomad  life 
on  the  plains,  recrossed  the  Tumen  and  a great  movement  of  emi- 
gration set  into  Northern  Corea,  which  again  became  populous, 
cultivated,  and  inch.  With  increasing  prosperity  better  govern- 
ment was  desired.  The  worthlessness  of  the  rulers  and  the  pros- 
pect of  a successful  revolution  tempted  the  ambition  of  a Buddh- 
ist monk  named  Kung-wo  who,  in  912  a.d.,  left  his  monastery 
and  raised  the  flag  of  rebellion.  He  set  forth  to  establish  another 
political  fabric  of  mushroom  duration,  which  was  destined  to 
make  way  for  a more  permanent  kingdom,  and,  in  the  end,  united 
Corea. 

With  his  followers,  Kung-wo  attacked  the  city  of  Kaichow  (in 
the  modern  Kang-wen  province),  and  was  so  far  successful  as  to 
enter  it  and  proclaim  himself  king.  His  personal  success  was 
of  short  duration.  His  lieutenant,  Wang-ken,  that  is  Wang  the 
founder,  was  a descendant  of  the  old  kingly  house  of  Korai.  Dur- 
ing all  the  time  of  Chinese  occupancy,  or  Shinra  supremacy,  his 
family  had  kept  alive  their  spirit,  traditions,  and  claims.  Think 
ing  he  could  rule  better  than  a priest,  Wang  put  the  ex-monk  to 
death  and  proclaimed  himself  the  true  sovereign  of  Korai.  All 
this  went  on  without  the  interference  of  China,  which  at  this  time 
was  torn  by  internal  disorder  and  the  ravages  of  the  same  Kitan 
tribes  that  had  destroyed  Puhai.  WTang  made  Ping-an  and  Kai- 
chow the  capitals  of  his  kingdom,  and  resolved  to  take  full  advan- 
tage of  his  opportunity  to  conquer  the  entire  peninsula  and  unite 
all  its  parts  under  his  sceptre. 

Circumstances  made  this  an  easy  task.  With  China  passive, 
Shinra  weak,  through  long  absorption  in  luxury  and  the  arts  of 


GO 


COREA. 


peace,  and  with  most  part  of  the  population  of  the  peninsula  of 
Korain  blood  and  descent,  the  work  was  easy.  The  whole  country, 
from  the  Ever- White  Mountains  to  Quelpart  Island,  was  overrun 
and  welded  into  unity.  The  name  of  Shinra  was  blotted  out  after 
a line  of  fifty-six  kings  and  a life  of  nine  hundred  and  ninety-three 
years.  For  the  first  time  the  peninsula  became  a political  unit, 
and  the  name  Korai,  springing  to  life  again  like  the  Arabian 
phoenix  out  of  its  ashes,  became  the  symbol  alike  of  united  Corea 
and  of  the  race  w-hicli  peopled  it.  Even  yet  the  name  Korai 
(Gauli  or  Gori  in  the  vernacular)  is  generally  used  by  the  people. 

The  probabilities  are  that  the  people  of  the  old  Fuyu  race, 
descendants  of  the  tribes  of  Kokorai,  as  the  more  vigorous  stock, 
had  already  so  far  supplanted  the  old  aboriginal  people  inhabiting 
Southern  Corea  as  to  make  conquest  by  Wang,  who  was  one  of 
their  own  blood,  easy.  This  is  shown  in  a series  of  maps  repre- 
senting the  three  kingdoms  of  Corea  from  201  to  G55  a.d.,  by  the 
Japanese  scholar  Otsuki  Toyo.  At  the  former  date  the  Kokorai 
people  beyond  that  part  of  their  domain  conquered  by  China  have 
occupied  the  land  as  far  south  as  the  Han  River,  or  to  the  37th 
parallel.  Later,  Shinra,  in  593,  and  again  in  G55,  backed  by  Chi- 
nese armies,  had  regained  her  territory  a degree  or  two  northward, 
and  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  acting  as  the  ally  of  China, 
ruled  all  the  country  to  the  Tumen  River.  Yet,  though  Shinra 
held  the  land,  the  inhabitants  were  the  same,  namely,  the  stock  of 
Korai,  ready  to  rise  against  their  rulers  and  to  annihilate  Shinra 
in  a name  and  monarchy  that  had  in  it  nationality  and  the  pres- 
tige of  their  ancient  freedom  and  greatness. 

Thoroughly  intent  on  unifying  his  realm,  Wang  chose  a central 
location  for  the  national  capital.  Kion-chiu,  the  metropolis  of 
Shinra,  was  too  far  south,  Ping-an,  the  royal  seat  of  old  Korai, 
was  too  far  north  ; but  one  hundred  miles  nearer  “the  river  ” Han, 
was  Sunto.  This  city,  now  called  Kai-seng,  is  twenty-five  miles 
from  Seoul  and  equally  near  the  sea.  Wang  made  Sunto  what  it 
has  been  for  over  nine  centuries,  a fortified  city  of  the  first  rank, 
the  chief  commercial  centre  of  the  country,  and  a seat  of  learning. 
It  remained  the  capital  until  1392  a.d.  Wang-ken  or  Wang,  the 
founder  of  the  new  dynasty  under  which  the  people  were  to  be 
governed  for  over  four  hundred  years,  was  an  ardent  Buddhist. 
Spite  of  his  having  put  the  monk  to  death  to  further  personal 
ends,  he  became  the  defender  of  the  India  faith  and  made  it  the 
official  religion.  Monasteries  were  founded  and  temples  built  in 


KORAI,  OR  UNITED  COREA. 


67 


great  numbers.  To  furnish  revenues  for  the  support  of  these, 
tracts  of  land  were  set  apart  as  permanent  endowment.  The  four 
centuries  of  the  house  of  Korai  are  the  palmy  days  of  Corean 
Buddhism. 

From  China,  which  at  this  time  was  enjoying  that  era  of  liter- 
ary splendor,  for  which  the  Sung  dynasty  was  noted,  there  came 
an  impulse  both  to  scholastic  activity  and  to  something  approach- 
ing popular  education. 

The  Nido,  or  native  syllabary,  which  had  been  invented  by 
Cliul-chong,  the  statesman  of  Shinra,  now  came  into  general  use. 
While  Chinese  literature  and  the  sacred  books  of  Buddhism  were 
studied  in  the  original  Sanscrit,  popular  works  were  composed  in 
Corean  and  written  out  in  the  Nido,  or  vernacular  syllables.  The 
printing  press,  invented  by  the  Sung  scholars,  was  introduced  and 
books  were  printed  from  cut  blocks.  The  Japanese  are  known  to 
have  adopted  printing  from  Corea  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century, 
when  a work  of  the  Buddhist  canon  was  printed  from  wooden 
blocks.  “A  Corean  book  is  known  which  dates  authentically  from 
the  period  1317-1324,  over  a century  before  the  earliest  printed 
book  known  in  Europe.”  The  use  of  metal  type,  made  by  mould- 
ing and  casting,  is  not  distinctly  mentioned  in  Corea  until  the  year 
1420,  and  the  invention  and  use  of  the  Unmun,  a true  native  al- 
phabet, seems  to  belong  to  the  same  period.  The  eleven  vowels 
and  fourteen  consonants  serve  both  as  an  alphabet  and  a syllabary, 
the  latter  being  the  most  ancient  system,  and  the  former  an  im- 
provement on  it. 

The  unifier  of  Corea  died  in  945  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Wu.  Fifteen  years  later  the  last  of  the  five  weak  dynasties  that 
had  rapidly  succeeded  each  other  in  China,  fell.  The  Chinese 
emperor  proposing,  and  the  Corean  king  being  willing,  the  latter 
hastened  to  send  tribute,  and  formed  an  alliance  of  friendship 
with  the  imperial  Sung,  who  swayed  the  destinies  of  China  for 
the  next  166  years  (960-1101). 

Korai  soon  came  into  collision  with  the  Kitans  in  the  following 
manner.  The  royal  line  of  united  Corea  traced  their  descent  di- 
rectly from  the  ancient  kings  of  Kokorai,  and  therefore  claimed 
relationship  with  the  princes  of  Puhai.  On  the  strength  of  this 
claim,  the  Koraian  king  asserted  his  right  to  the  whole  of  Liao 
Tung,  which  had  been  formerly  held  by  Puhai.  The  Kitans,  hav- 
ing matters  of  greater  importance  to  attend  to  at  the  time,  allowed 
its  temporary  occupation  by  Korai  troops.  Nevertheless  the  king 


G8 


COREA. 


thought  it  best  to  send  homage  to  the  Ivitan  emperor,  in  order  to 
get  a clear  title  to  the  territory.  In  1012  he  despatched  an  em- 
bassy acknowledging  the  Kitan  supremacy.  This  verbal  message 
did  not  satisfy  the  strong  conqueror,  who  demanded  that  the 
Koraian  king  should  come  in  person  and  make  obeisance.  The 
latter  refused.  A feud  at  once  broke  out  between  them,  which  led 
to  a war,  in  which  Korai  was  worsted  and  stripped  of  all  her  terri- 
tory west  of  the  Yalu  River. 

Palladius  has  pointed  out  the  interesting  fact  that  a little  vil- 
lage about  twenty  miles  north  of  Tie-ling,  and  seventy  miles  north 
of  Mukden,  called  Gauli-chan  (Korai  village)  still  witnesses  by  its 
name  to  its  former  history,  and  to  the  possession  by  Corea  of  ter- 
ritory west  of  the  Yalu. 

The  Kitans,  not  satisfied  with  recovering  Liao  Tung,  crossed 
the  river  and  invaded  Korai,  in  1015.  By  this  time  a new  nation, 
under  the  name  of  Nvijun  or  Ninchi,  had  formed  around  Lake 
Hanka,  in  part  of  the  territory  of  extinct  Puhai.  With  their  new 
frontagers  the  Koraians  made  an  alliance  “as  solid  as  iron  and 
stone,”  and  with  their  aid  drove  back  the  Kitan  invaders. 

Henceforth  the  boundaries  of  Corea  remained  stationary,  and 
have  never  extended  beyond  the  limits  with  which  the  western 
world  is  familiar. 

An  era  of  peace  and  prosperity  set  in,  and  a thriving  trade 
sprang  up  between  the  Nlijun  and  Korai.  The  two  nations,  ce- 
mented in  friendship  through  a common  fear  of  the  Kitans,  grew 
apace  in  numbers  and  prosperity. 

The  Kitans  were  known  to  Chinese  authors  as  early  as  the  fifth 
century,  seven  nomad  tribes  being  at  that  time  confederate  under 
their  banners.  At  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century,  these  wan- 
derers had  been  transformed  into  hordes  of  disciplined  cavalry. 
Their  wealth  and  intelligence  having  increased  by  conquest,  they 
formed  a great  empire  in  925,  which  extended  from  the  Altai 
Mountains  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  from  within  the  Great  Wall 
to  the  Yablonoi  Mountains,  having  Peking  for  one  of  its  capitals. 
It  flourished  until  the  twelfth  century  (a.d.  1125),  when  it  gave 
way  to  the  Kin  empire,  which  held  Mongolia  and  still  more  terri- 
tory than  the  Kitans  possessed  within  what  is  now  China  proper. 

This  Kin  empire  was  founded  by  the  expansion  of  the  Niijun, 
who,  from  their  seats  north  of  the  Tumen  and  east  of  the  Sungari, 
had  gradually  widened,  and  by  conquest  absorbed  the  Kitans. 
Aguta,  the  founder  of  the  new  empire,  gave  it  the  name  of  the 


KORAI,  OR  UNITED  COREA. 


69 


Golden  Dominion.  During  its  existence  Corea  was  not  troubled 
by  her  great  neighbor,  and  for  two  hundred  years  enjoyed  peace 
within  her  borders.  Her  commerce  now  flourished  at  all  points 
of  the  compass,  both  on  land,  with  her  northern  and  western 
neighbors,  with  the  Japanese  on  the  east,  and  the  Chinese  south 
and  west.  Much  direct  intercourse  in  ships,  guided  by  the  mag- 
netic needle,  “the  chariot  of  the  south,”  took  place  between 
Ningpo  and  Sunto.  Mr.  Edkins  states  that  the  oldest  recorded 
instance  of  the  use  of  the  mariner’s  compass  is  that  in  the  Chinese 
historian’s  account  of  the  voyage  of  the  imperial  ambassador  to 
Corea,  from  Nanking  by  way  of  Ningpo,  in  a fleet  of  eight  vessels, 
in  the  year  1122. 

The  Arabs,  who  about  this  time  were  also  trading  with  the 
Coreans,  and  had  lived  in  their  country,  soon  afterward  introduced 
this  silent  friend  of  the  mariner  into  their  own  country  in  the 
west,  whence  it  foimd  its  way  into  Europe  and  to  the  hands  of 
Columbus.  To  the  eye  of  the  Corean  its  mysterious  finger  pointed 
to  the  south.  To  the  western  man  it  pointed  to  the  lode-star. 

The  huge  wide-open  eyes  which  the  sailors  of  Chinese  Asia 
paint  at  the  prow  of  their  ship,  to  discover  a path  in  the  sea, 
became  more  than  ever  an  empty  fancy  before  this  unerring  path- 
finder. As  useless  as  the  ever-open  orbs  on  a mummy  lid,  these 
lidless  eyes  were  relegated  to  the  domain  of  poetry,  while  the 
swinging  needle  opened  new  paths  of  science  and  discovery. 


Coin  of  Korai.  “ Ko-ka  ” (Name  of  Year-Period).  “Current  Money.’ 


CHAPTER  X. 


CATHAY,  ZIPANGU,  AND  THE  MONGOLS. 

After  a long  breatliing-spell — as  one,  in  reading  history,  might 
call  it— the  old  hive  in  the  north  was  again  ready  to  swarm.  It  was 
to  be  seen  once  more  how  useless  was  the  Great  Wall  of  China  in 
keeping  back  the  many-named  invaders,  known  in  history  by  the 
collective  term  Tatars.  A new  people  began  descending  from 
their  homeland,  which  lay  near  the  northern  and  eastern  shores  of 
Lake  Baikal.  This  inland  sea — scarcely  known  in  the  school 
geographies,  or  printed  in  the  average  atlas  in  such  proportionate 
dimensions  as  to  suggest  a pond — is  one  of  the  largest  lakes  in 
the  world,  being  370  miles  long  and  covering  13,300  square  miles 
of  surface.  Its  shores  are  now  inhabited  by  Russian  colonists  and 
its  waters  are  navigated  by  whole  fleets  of  ships  and  steamers.  It 
lies  1,280  feet  above  the  sea. 

Beginning  their  migrations  from  this  point,  in  numbers  and 
bulk  that  suggest  only  the  snowball,  the  Mongol  horsemen  moved 
with  resistless  increase  and  momentum,  consolidating  into  their 
mass  tribe  after  tribe,  until  their  horde  seemed  an  avalanche  of 
humanity  that  threatened  to  crush  all  civilization  and  engulph  the 
whole  earth.  These  mounted  highlanders  from  the  north  were 
creatures  who  seemed  to  be  horse  and  man  in  one  being,  and  to 
actualize  the  old  fable  of  the  Centaurs.  With  a tiger-skin  for  a 
saddle,  a thong  loop  with  only  the  rider’s  great  toe  thrust  in  it  for 
a stirrup,  a string  in  the  horse’s  lower  jaw  for  a bridle,  armed 
with  spear  and  cimeter,  these  conquerors  who  despised  walls  went 
forth  to  level  cities  and  slaughter  all  who  resisted.  In  their  raids 
they  found  food  ever  ready  in  the  beasts  they  rode,  for  a reeking 
haunch  of  horse-meat,  cut  from  the  steed  whose  saddle  had  been 
emptied  by  arrow  or  accident,  was  usually  found  slung  to  their 
pommels.  A slice  of  this,  raw  or  warmed,  served  to  sustain  life 
for  these  hard  riders,  who  lived  all  day  in  the  saddle  and  at  night 
slept  with  it  wrapped  around  them. 

For  a century  the  power  of  these  nomads  was  steadily  grow- 


CATHAY,  ZIPANGU,  AND  THE  MONGOLS. 


71 


ing,  before  they  emerged  clearly  into  history  and  loomed  up  before 
the  frontiers  of  the  empire.  The  master  mind  and  hand  that 
moulded  them  into  unity  was  Genghis  Khan  (1160-1227  a.d.). 

Who  was  Genghis  Khan  ? A Japanese  writer,  who  is  also  a 
traveller  in  Corea  and  China,  has  written  in  English  a thesis  which 
shows,  with  strong  probability,  at  least,  that  this  unifier  of  Asia  was 
Gen-Ghike,  or  Yoshitsune.  This  Japanese  hero,  born  in  1159,  was 
the  field-marshal  of  the  army  of  the  Minamoto  who  annihilated  the 
Taira  family.1  In  1189,  having  fled  from  his  jealous  brother,  Y’ori- 
tomo,  he  reached  Yezo  and  thence  crossed,  it  is  believed,  to  Man- 
churia. His  was  probably  the  greatest  military  mind  which  Japan 
ever  produced. 

That  Yoshitsune  and  Genghis  Khan  were  one  person  is  argued 
by  Mr.  Suyematz,2  who  brings  a surprising  array  of  coincidences  to 
prove  his  thesis.  These  are  in  names,  titles,  ages,  dates,  personal 
characteristics,  flags  and  banners,  myths  and  traditions,  nomen- 
clature of  families,  localities  and  individuals,  and  Japanese  relics, 
coins,  arms,  and  fortresses  in  Manchuria.  Without  reaching  the 
point  of  demonstration,  it  seems  highly  probable  that  this  wonder- 
ful personality,  this  marvellous  intellect,  was  of  Japanese  origin. 

Whoever  this  restless  spirit  was,  it  is  certain  that  he  gathered 
tribes  once  living  in  freedom  like  the  wild  waves  into  the  unity  of 
the  restless  sea.  Out  from  the  grassy  plains  of  Manchuria  rolled 
a tidal-wave  of  conquest  that  swept  over  Asia,  and  flung  its  last 
drops  of  spray  alike  over  Japan,  India,  and  Russia.  Among  the  na- 
tions completely  overrun  and  overwhelmed  by  the  Mongol  hordes 
was  Corea. 

In  1206,  Yezokai — the  word  in  Japanese  means  Yezo  Sea — the 
leader  of  the  Mongols,  at  the  request  of  his  chieftains,  took  the  name 
of  Genghis  Khan  and  proclaimed  himself  the  ruler  of  an  empire. 
He  now  set  before  himself  the  task  of  subduing  the  Kitans  and  ab- 
sorbing their  land  and  people,  preparatory  to  the  conquest  of 
China.  This  was  accomplished  in  less  than  six  years.  Liao  Tung 
was  invaded  and,  in  1213,  his  armies  were  inside  the  Great  Wall. 
Three  mighty  hosts  were  now  organized,  one  to  overran  all  China 
to  Nepal  and  Anam,  one  to  conquer  Corea  and  Japan,  and  one  to 
bear  the  white  banners  of  the  Mongols  across  Asia  into  Europe. 
This  work,  though  not  done  in  a day,  was  nearly  completed  before 

' The  Mikado’s  Empire,  Chapters  XIII.  and  XIV. 

2 The  Identity  of  the  Great  Conqueror,  Genghis  Khan,  with  the  Japanese 
Hero  Yoshitsune,  by  K.  Suyematz  of  Japan.  London,  1879. 


72 


COREA. 


a generation  passed.1  Genghis  Khan  led  the  host  that  moved  to 
the  west.  In  1218  the  Corean  king  declared  himself  a vassal  of 
Genghis.  In  1231  the  murder  of  a Mongol  envoy  in  Corea  was 
the  cause  of  the  first  act  of  war.  The  Mongols  invaded  the  coun- 
try, captured  forty  of  the  principal  towns,  received  the  humiliation 
of  the  king,  who  had  fled  to  Kang-wa  Island,  and  began  the  aboli- 
tion of  Corean  independence  by  appointing  seventy-two  Mongol 
prefects  to  administer  the  details  of  local  government.  The  people, 
exasperated  by  the  new  and  strange  methods  of  their  foreign  con- 
querors, rose  against  them  and  murdered  them  all.  This  was  the 
signal  for  a second  and  more  terrible  invasion.  A great  Mongol 
army  overran  the  country  in  1241,  fought  a number  of  pitched 
battles,  defeated  the  king,  and  again  imposed  heavy  tribute  on 
their  humbled  vassal.  In  1256  the  Corean  king  went  in  person  to 
do  homage  at  the  court  of  the  conqueror  of  continents. 

In  the  details  of  the  Mongol  rule  kindness  and  cruelty  were 
blended.  The  most  relentless  military  measures  were  taken  to 
secure  obedience  after  the  conciliatory  policy  failed.  By  using 
both  methods  the  great  Khan  kept  his  hold  on  the  little  peninsula, 
although  the  Coreans  manifested  a constant  disposition  to  revolt. 

About  this  time  began  a brilliant  half  century  of  intercourse 
between  Europe  and  Cathay,  which  has  been  studied  and  illustra- 
ted in  the  writings  of  Colonel  H.  Yule.  The  two  Franciscan  monks 
Carpinini  and  Rubruquis  visited  China,  and  the  camps  of  the  great 
Khan,  between  the  years  1245  and  1253.  By  their  graphic  narra- 
tives, in  which  the  wars  of  Genghis  were  described,  they  made  the 
name  of  Cathay  (from  Kitai,  or  Kitan)  familiar  in  Europe.  Matteo, 
Nicolo,  and  Marco  Polo,  who  came  later,  as  representatives  of  the 
commerce  which  afterward  flourished  between  Venice  and  Genoa, 
and  Ningpo  and  Amoy,  were  but  a few  among  many  merchants 
and  travellers.  Embassies  from  the  Popes  and  the  Khan  ex- 
changed courtesies  at  Avignon  and  Cambaluc  (Peking).  Christian 
churches  were  established  in  Peking  and  other  cities  by  the  Fran- 
ciscan monks.  The  various  Europeans  who  have  saved  their  own 
names  and  a few  others  from  oblivion,  and  have  left  us  a roman- 
tic, but  in  the  main  a truthful,  picture  of  mediaeval  China  and  the 
Mongols,  were  probably  only  the  scribes  among  a host  who  traded 
or  travelled,  but  never  told  their  story.  Among  the  marvels  of  the 
empire  of  the  Mongols,  in  which  one  might  walk  safely  from  Corea 
to  Russia,  was  religious  toleration.  "When,  however,  the  Mongols 


1 See  Howorth’s  History  of  the  Mongols,  London,  1876. 


CATHAY,  ZIPANGU,  AND  THE  MONGOLS. 


73 


of  central  Asia  embraced  the  creed  of  Islam,  bigotry  closed  the 
highway  into  Europe,  and  communications  ceased.  Cathay,  Zi- 
pangu,  and  Corea  again  sunk  from  the  eyes  of  Europe  into  the 
night  of  historic  darkness. 

Ivhublai  Khan  having  succeeded  his  grandfather,  Genghis,  and 
being  now  ruler  of  all  the  Asiatic  mainland,  resolved,  in  126G,  to 
conquer  Japan.  He  wrote  a letter  to  the  mikado,  but  the  envoys 
were  so  frightened  by  the  Corean’s  exaggerated  account  of  the 
difficulties  of  reaching  the  empire  in  the  sea,  that  they  never  sailed. 
Other  embassies  were  despatched  in  1271  and  1273,  and  Khublai 
began  to  prepare  a mighty  flotilla  and  army  of  invasion.  One 
hundred  of  the  ships  were  built  on  Quelpart  Island.  His  armada, 
consisting  of  300  vessels  and  15,000  men,  Chinese,  Mongols,  and 
Coreans,  sailed  to  Japan  and  was  met  by  the  Japanese  off  the  isl- 
and of  Iki.  Owing  to  their  valor,  but  more  to  the  tempest  that 
arose,  the  expedition  wras  a total  loss,  only  a few  of  the  original 
number  reaching  Corea  alive. 

Evidently  desirous  of  conquering  Japan  by  diplomacy,  the 
great  Khan  despatched  an  embassy  which  reached,  not  the  mi- 
kado’s, but  only  the  sho-gun’s  court  in  1275.  His  ambassadors 
were  accompanied  by  a large  retinue  from  his  Corean  vassals. 
The  Japanese  allowed  only  three  of  the  imposing  number  to  go 
to  Kamakura,  twelve  miles  from  the  modem  Tokio,  and  paid  no 
attention  to  the  Khan’s  threatening  letters.  So  irritated  were  the 
brave  islanders  that  when  another  ambassador  from  the  Khan  ar- 
rived, in  the  following  year,  he  disembarked  as  a prisoner  and  was 
escorted,  bound,  to  Kamakura,  where  he  was  thrown  into  prison, 
kept  during  four  years,  and  taken  out  only  to  be  beheaded. 

Upon  hearing  this,  Khublai  began  the  preparation  of  the  mighti- 
est of  his  invading  hosts.  To  be  braved  by  a little  island  nation, 
when  his  sceptre  ruled  from  the  Dnieper  to  the  Yellow  Sea,  was 
not  to  be  thought  of.  Various  fleets  and  contingents  sailed  from 
different  ports  in  China  and  made  rendezvous  on  the  Corean  coast. 
The  fleet  was  composed  of  3,500  war  junks,  of  large  size,  having  on 
board  180,000  Chinese,  Mongols,  and  Coreans.  Among  their  en- 
gines of  war  were  the  catapults  which  the  Polos  had  taught  them 
to  make.  They  set  sail  in  the  autumn  of  1281. 

From  the  very  first  the  enterprise  miscarried.  The  general-in- 
chief  fell  sick  and  the  command  devolved  on  a subordinate,  who 
had  no  plan  of  operation.  The  various  divisions  of  the  force  be- 
came separated.  It  is  probable  that  the  majority  of  them  never 


74 


COREA. 


reached  the  mainland  of  Japan.  The  Mongol  and  Corean  contin- 
gent reached  the  province  of  Chikuzen,  but  •were  not  allowed  to 
make  a successful  landing,  for  the  Japanese  drove  them  back  with 
sword  and  fire.  The  Chinese  division,  arriving  later,  was  met  by 
a terrible  tempest  that  nearly  annihilated  them  and  destroyed  the 
ships  already  engaged.  The  broken  remnant  of  the  fleet  and 
armies,  taking  refuge  on  the  island  of  Iki,  were  attacked  by  the 
Japanese  and  nearly  all  slain,  imprisoned,  or  beheaded  in  cold 
blood.  Only  a few  reached  Corea  to  tell  the  tale. 

The  “Mongol  civilization,”  so-called,  seems  to  have  had  little 
influence  on  Corea.  The  mighty  empire  of  Genghis  soon  broke 
into  many  fragments.  The  vast  fabric  of  his  government  melted 
ike  a sand  house  before  an  incoming  wave,  and  that  wave  receding 
left  scarcely  a sediment  recognizable  on  the  polity  or  social  life  of 
Corea.  Marco  Polo  in  his  book  hardly  mentions  the  country,  though 
describing  Zipangu  or  Japan  quite  fully.  One  evil  effect  of  their 
forced  assistance  given  to  the  Mongols,  was  that  the  hatred  of  the 
Japanese  and  Coreans  for  each  other  was  mutually  intensified 
After  the  Mongolian  invasion  begins  that  series  of  piratical  raid; 
on  their  coast  and  robbery  of  their  vessels  at  sea,  by  Japanese 
adventurers,  that  made  navigation  beyond  sight  of  land  and  ship- 
building among  the  Coreans  almost  a lost  art. 

The  centuries  following  the  Mongol  invasion  were  periods  of 
anarchy  and  civil  war  in  Japan,  and  the  central  government  au- 
thority being  weak  the  pirates  could  not  be  controlled.  Building 
or  stealing  ships,  bands  of  Japanese  sailors  or  ex-soldiers  put  to 
sea,  capturing  Corean  boats,  junks,  and  surf-rafts.  Landing,  they 
harried  the  shores  and  robbed  and  murdered  the  defenceless  peo- 
ple. Growing  bolder,  the  marauders  sailed  into  the  Yellow  Sea 
and  landed  even  in  China  and  in  Liao  Tung.  They  kept  whole 
towns  and  cities  in  terror,  and  a chain  of  coast  forts  had  to  be 
built  in  Shan-tung  to  defend  that  province. 

The  fire-signals  which,  in  the  old  days  of  “ the  Three  King- 
doms,” had  flashed  upon  the  headlands  to  warn  of  danger  seaward, 
were  now  made  a national  service.  The  system  was  perfected  so 
as  to  converge  at  the  capital,  Sunto,  and  give  notice  of  danger 
from  any  point  on  the  coast.  By  this  means  better  protection 
against  the  sea-rovers  was  secured. 

All  this  evil  experience  -with  the  piratical  Japanese  of  the  mid- 
dle ages  has  left  its  impress  on  the  language  of  the  Coreans. 
From  this  period,  perhaps  even  long  before  it,  date  those  words 


CATHAY,  ZIPANGU,  AND  THE  MONGOLS. 


75 


of  sinister  omen  of  which  we  give  but  one  or  two  examples  which 
have  the  prefix  wax  (Japan)  in  them.  A xcai-kol,  a huge,  fierce  man, 
of  gigantic  aspect,  with  a bad  head,  though  perhaps  with  good 
heart,  a kind  of  ogre,  is  a Japanese  lcol  or  creature.  A destructive 
wind  or  typhoon  is  a Japanese  wind.  As  western  Christendom  for 
centuries  uttered  then*  fears  of  the  Norse  pirates,  “ From  the  fury 
of  the  Northmen,  Good  Lord,  deliver  us,”  so  the  Korai  people, 


Two-Masted  Corean  Vessel  (from  a Photograph  taken  in  1871). 

along  the  coast,  for  many  generations  offered  up  constant  petition 
to  then*  gods  for  protection  against  these  Northmen  of  the  Pacific. 

This  chronic  danger  from  Japanese  pirates,  which  Korai  and 
Cho-sen  endured  for  a period  nearly  as  extended  as  that  of  Eng- 
land from  the  Northmen,  is  one  of  the  causes  that  have  contribu- 
ted to  make  the  natives  dread  the  sea  as  a path  for  enemies,  and 
in  Corea  we  see  the  strange  anomaly  of  a people  more  than  semi- 
civilized  whose  wretched  boats  scarcely  go  beyond  tide-water. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


NEW  CHO-SEN. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  first  Chinese  settler  and  civ- 
ilizer of  Corea,  Ki  Tsze,  gave  it  the  name  of  Cho-sen.  Coming 
from  violence  and  war,  to  a land  of  peace  which  lay  eastward  of 
his  old  home,  Ki  Tsze  selected  for  his  new  dwelling-place  a name 
at  once  expressive  of  its  outward  position  and  his  own  inward  emo- 
tions— Cho-sen,  or  Morning  Calm. 

For  eleven  centuries  a part  of  Manchuria,  including,  as  the 
Coreans  believe,  the  northern  half  of  the  peninsula,  bore  this 
name.  From  the  Christian  era  until  the  tenth  century,  the  names 
of  the  three  kingdoms,  Shinra,  Hiaksai,  and  Kokorai,  or  Korai, 
express  the  divided  political  condition  of  the  country.  On  the  fall 
of  these  petty  states,  the  united  peninsula  was  called  Korai.  Korai 
existed  from  a.d.  934  until  a.d.  1392,  when  the  ancient  name  of 
Cho-sen  was  restored.  Though  the  Coreans  often  speak  of  their 
country  as  Korai  (Gauli,  or  Gori),  it  is  as  the  English  speak  of 
Britain — with  a patriotic  feeling  rather  than  for  accuracy.  Cho- 
sen is  still  the  official  and  popular  designation  of  the  country. 
This  name  is  at  once  the  oldest  and  the  newest. 

The  first  bestowal  of  this  name  on  the  peninsula  was  in  poetic 
mood,  and  was  the  symbol  of  a peaceful  triumph.  The  second 
gift  of  the  name  was  the  index  of  a political  revolution  not  un- 
accompanied with  bloodshed.  The  latter  days  of  the  dynasty 
founded  by  Wang  were  marked  by  licentiousness  and  effeminacy 
in  the  palace,  and  misrule  in  the  country.  The  people  hated  the 
cruelties  of  their  monarch,  the  thirty-second  of  his  line,  and  longed 
for  a deliverer.  Such  a one  was  Ni  Taijo  (Japanese,  Ri  Seiki),  who 
was  born  in  the  region  of  Broughton’s  Bay,  in  the  Ham-kiung 
province.  It  is  said  of  him  that  from  his  youth  he  surpassed  all 
others  in  virtue,  intelligence,  and  skill  in  manly  exercises.  He 
was  especially  fond  of  hunting  with  the  falcon. 

One  day,  while  in  the  woods,  his  favorite  bird,  in  pursuing  its 


NEW  CHO-SEN. 


77 

quarry,  flew  so  far  ahead  that  it  was  lost  to  the  sight  of  its  master. 
Hastening  after  it  the  young  man  espied  a shrine  at  the  roadside 
into  which  he  saw  his  hawk  fly.  Entering,  he  found  within  a her- 
mit priest.  Awed  and  abashed  at  the  weird  presence  of  the  white- 
bearded  sage,  the  lad  for  a moment  was  speechless  ; but  the  old 
man,  addressing  him,  said  : “ What  benefit  is  it  for  a youth  of  your 
abilities  to  be  seeking  a stray  falcon  ? A throne  is  a richer  prize. 
Betake  yourself  at  once  to  the  capital.” 

Acting  upon  the  hint  thus  given  him,  and  leaving  the  falcon 
behind,  Taijo  wended  his  way  westward  to  Sunto,  and  entered  the 
military  service  of  the  king.  He  soon  made  his  mark  and  rapidly 
rose  to  high  command,  until  he  became  lieutenant-general  of  the 
whole  army.  He  married  and  reared  children,  and  through  the 
espousal  of  his  daughter  by  the  king,  became  father-in-law  to  his 
sovereign. 

The  influence  of  Taijo  was  now  immense.  While  with  his 
soldierly  abilities  he  won  the  enthusiastic  regard  of  the  army,  his 
popularity  with  the  people  rested  solely  on  his  virtues.  Possessed 
of  such  influence  with  the  court,  the  soldiers,  and  the  country  at 
large,  he  endeavored  to  reform  the  abuse  of  power  and  to  curb  the 
cruelties  of  the  king.  Even  to  give  advice  to  a despot  is  an  act  of 
bravery,  but  Taijo  dared  to  do  it  again  and  again.  The  king,  how- 
ever, refused  to  follow  the  counsel  of  his  father-in-law  or  to  reform 
abuses.  He  thus  daily  increased  the  odium  in  which  he  was  held 
by  his  subjects. 

Such  was  the  state  of  affairs  toward  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  when  everything  was  ripe  for  revolution. 

In  China,  great  events,  destined  to  influence  “ the  little  king- 
dom,” were  taking  place.  The  Mongol  dynasty,  even  after  the 
breaking  up  of  the  empire  founded  by  Genghis  Khan,  still  held 
the  dragon  throne  ; but  during  the  later  years  of  their  reign,  when 
harassed  by  enemies  at  home,  Corea  was  neglected  and  her  tribute 
remained  unpaid.  A spasmodic  attempt  to  resubdue  the  lapsed 
vassal,  and  make  Corea  a Mongol  castle  of  refuge  from  impending 
doom,  was  rained  by  the  energy  and  valor  of  Ni  Taijo.  The 
would-be  invaders  were  driven  back.  The  last  Mongol  emperor 
fell  in  1341,  and  the  native  Ming,  or  “ Bright,”  dynasty  came  into 
power,  and  in  1368  was  firmly  established. 

Their  envoys  being  sent  to  Corea  demanded  pledges  of  vassal- 
age.  The  king  neglected,  finally  refused,  and  ordered  fresh  levies 
to  be  made  to  resist  the  impending  invasion  of  the  Chinese.  In 


73 


COREA. 


this  time  of  gloom  and  bitterness  against  tlieiv  own  monarch,  the 
army  contained  but  a pitifully  small  number  of  men  who  could  be 
depended  on  to  fight  the  overwhelming  host  of  the  Ming  veterans. 
Taijo,  in  an  address  to  his  followers,  thus  spoke  to  them : 

“ Although  the  order  from  the  king  must  be  obeyed,  yet  the 
attack  upon  the  Ming  soldiers,  with  so  small  an  army  as  ours,  is 
like  casting  an  egg  against  a rock,  and  no  one  of  the  army  will 
return  alive.  I do  not  tell  you  this  from  any  fear  of  death,  but 
our  king  is  too  haughty.  He  does  not  heed  our  advice.  He  has 
ordered  out  the  army  suddenly  without  cause,  paying  no  attention 
to  the  suffering  which  wives  and  children  of  the  soldiers  must 
undergo.  This  is  a thing  I cannot  bear.  Let  us  go  back  to  the 
capital  and  the  responsibility  shall  fall  on  my  shoulders  alone.” 

Thereupon  the  captains  and  soldiers  being  impressed  with  the 
purity  of  their  leader’s  motives,  and  admiring  his  courage,  resolved 
to  obey  his  orders  and  not  the  king’s.  Arriving  at  Sunto,  he 
promptly  took  measures  to  depose  the  king,  who  was  sent  to 
Kang-wa,  the  island  so  famous  in  modern  as  in  ancient  and  mediae- 
val history. 

The  king’s  wrath  was  very  great,  and  he  intrigued  to  avenge 
himself.  His  plot  was  made  known,  by  one  of  his  retainers,  to 
Taijo,  who,  by  a counter-movement,  put  forth  the  last  radical 
measure  which,  in  Chinese  Asia  means,  for  a private  person,  disin- 
heritance ; for  a king,  deposition  ; and  for  a royal  line,  extinction. 
This  act  was  the  removal  of  the  tablets  of  the  king’s  ancestors  from 
their  shrine,  and  the  issue  of  an  order  forbidding  further  continu- 
ance of  sacrifice  to  them.  This  Corean  and  Chinese  method  of 
clapping  the  extinguisher  upon  a whole  dynasty  was  no  sooner  or- 
dered than  duly  executed. 

Ni  Taijo  was  now  made  king,  to  the  great  delight  of  the  peo- 
ple. He  sent  an  embassy  to  Nanking  to  notify  the  Ming  emperor 
of  affairs  in  the  “ outpost  state,”  to  tender  his  loyal  vassalage,  to 
seek  the  imperial  approval  of  his  acts,  and  to  beg  his  investiture 
as  sovereign.  This  was  graciously  granted.  The  ancient  name  of 
Clio-sen  was  revived,  and  at  the  petitioner’s  request  conferred  upon 
the  country  by  the  emperor,  who  profited  by  this  occasion  to  en- 
force upon  the  Coreans  his  calendar  and  chronology — the  recep- 
tion of  these  being  in  itself  alone  tantamount  to  a sufficient  de- 
claration of  fealty.  Friendship  being  now  fully  established  with 
the  Mings,  the  king  of  Cho-sen  sent  a number  of  youths,  sons  of 
his  nobles,  to  Nanking  to  study  in  the  imperial  Chinese  college. 


NEW  CHO  SEN. 


79 


The  dynasty  thus  established  is  still  the  reigning  family  in 
Corea,  though  the  direct  line  came  to  an  end  in  1864.  The  Co- 
reans  in  their  treaty  with  Japan,  in  1876,  dated  the  document  ac- 
cording to  the  484th  year  of  Cho-sen,  reckoning  from  the  acces- 
sion of  Ni  Taijo  to  the  throne.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  new 
dynasty  was  to  make  a change  in  the  location  of  the  national 
capital.  The  new  dynasty  made  choice  of  the  city  of  Han  Yang, 


The  Walls  of  Seoul  (from  a Photograph,  1876). 


situated  on  the  Han  River,  about  fifty  miles  from  its  mouth.  The 
king  enlarged  the  fortifications,  enclosed  the  city  with  a wall  of 
masonry  of  great  extent,  extending  over  the  adjacent  hills  and 
valleys.  On  this  wall  was  a rampart  pierced  with  port-holes  for 
archers  and  over  the  streams  were  built  arches  of  stone.  He  or- 
ganized the  administrative  system  which,  with  slight  modification, 
is  still  in  force  at  the  present  time.  The  city  being  well  situated, 
soon  grew  in  extent,  and  hence  became  the  seoul  or  capital  (pro- 


80 


COREA. 


nounced  by  the  Chinese  king,  as  in  Nanking  and  Peking,  and  the 
Japanese  kio,  as  in  Kioto  and  Tokio).  He  also  re-divided  the 
kingdom  into  eight  do  or  provinces.  This  division  still  maintains. 
The  names,  formed  each  of  two  Chinese  characters  joined  to  that 
of  do  (circuit  or  province),  and  approximate  meanings  are  given 
below.1  With  such  names  of  bright  omen,  “ the  eight  provinces  ” 
entered  upon  an  era  of  peace  and  flourishing  prosperity.  The 
people  found  out  that  something  more  than  a change  of  masters 
was  meant  by  the  removal  of  the  capital  to  a more  central  situa- 
tion. Vigorous  reforms  were  carried  out,  and  changes  were  made, 
not  only  in  political  administration,  but  in  social  life,  and  even  in 
religion.  In  all  these  the  influence  of  the  China  of  the  Ming  em- 
perors is  most  manifest. 

Buddhism,  which  had  penetrated  into  every  part  of  the  country, 
and  had  become,  in  a measure,  at  least,  the  religion  of  the  state, 
was  now  set  aside  and  disestablished.  The  Confucian  ethics  and 
the  doctrines  of  the  Chinese  sages  were  not  only  more  diligently 
studied  and  propagated  under  royal  patronage,  but  were  incor- 
porated into  the  religion  of  the  state.  From  the  early  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  Confucianism  flourished  until  it  reached  the  point 
of  bigotry  and  intolerance  ; so  that  when  Christianity  was  discov- 
ered by  the  magistrates  to  be  existing  among  the  people,  it  was 
put  under  the  band  of  extirpation,  and  its  followers  thought 
worthy  of  death. 


1 Beginning  at  the  most  northern  and  eastern,  and  following  the  sea  line 
south  around  up  to  the  northeast,  they  are  : 


Corean. 

Japanese. 

English. 

1. 

Ham-kiung,  or 

Kan-kid  do. 

Perfect  Mirror,  or  Complete  View  Province. 

2. 

Kang-wen,  or 

Ko-gen  do. 

Bay  Meadow  Province. 

3. 

Kiung-sang,  or 

Kei-shd  do. 

Respectful  Congratulation  Province. 

4. 

Julia,  or 

Zen-ra  do. 

Completed  Network  Province. 

5. 

Cliung-chong,  or 

Chiu-sei  do. 

Serene  Loyalty  Province. 

6. 

Kiung-kei,  or 

Kei-ki  do. 

The  Capital  Circuit,  or  Home  Province. 

7. 

Whang-hai,  or 

Ko-kai  dd. 

Yellow  Sea  Province. 

8. 

Ping-an,  or 

Hei-an  dd 

Peace  and  Quiet  Province. 

In  this  table  we  have  given  the  names  in  English  which  approximate  the 
sounds  of  the  Chinese  characters,  with  which  names  of  the  provinces  are  writ- 
ten, and  as  they  are  heard  to-day  in  Cho-sen.  The  modern  Coreans  use  the 
modern  Chinese  sounds  of  the  characters,  while  the  Japanese  cling  to  the  an- 
cient Chinese  pronunciation  of  the  same  characters  as  they  received  them 
through  Hiaksai  and  Shinra,  eleven  or  twelve  centuries  ago.  The  old  pure 
Corean  sounds  were  Teru-ra  tai  for  Zen-ra  do,  Tsiku-shaku  tai  for  Chiu-sei  do, 
Keku-sliaku  tai  for  Kei-ki  do,  etc. 


NEW  CHO-SEN. 


81 


Magistrate  end  Servant. 


6 


82 


COREA. 


Whatever  may  have  been  the  motive  for  supplanting  Buddh- 
ism, whether  from  sincere  conviction  of  the  paramount  truth  of 
the  ancient  ethics,  or  a desire  to  closely  imitate  the  Middle  King- 
dom in  everything,  even  in  religion,  or  to  obtain  easy  and  great 
wealth  by  confiscating  the  monastery  and  temple  lands,  it  is  certain 
that  the  change  was  sweeping,  radical,  and  thorough.  All  observ- 
ers testify  that  the  cult  of  Shaka  in  Corea  is  almost  a shadow.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  many  cities  throughout  the  land,  are  buildings 
and  halls  erected  and  maintained  by  the  government,  in  which  sit 
in  honor  the  statues  of  Confucius  and  his  greatest  disciples. 

One  great  measure  that  tended  to  strengthen  and  make  popu- 
lar the  new  religious  establishment,  to  weaken  the  old  faith,  to 
give  strength  and  unity  to  the  new  government,  to  foster  educa- 
tion and  make  the  Corean  literary  classes  what  they  are  to-day — 
critical  scholars  in  Chinese — was  what  Americans  would  call  “ civil 
service  reform.”  Appointment  to  office  on  the  basis  of  merit,  as 
shown  in  the  literary  examinations,  was  made  the  rule.  Modelled 
closely  upon  the  Chinese  system,  three  grades  of  examinations 
were  appointed,  and  three  degrees  settled.  All  candidates  for 
military  or  civil  rank  and  office  must  possess  diplomas,  granted 
by  the  royal  or  provincial  examiners,  before  appointment  could  be 
made  or  salary  begun.  The  system,  which  is  still  in  vogue,  is 
more  fully  described  in  the  chapter  on  education. 

Among  the  changes  in  the  fashion  of  social  life,  introduced 
under  the  Ni  dynasty,  was  the  adoption  of  the  Ming  costume.  To 
the  Chinese  of  to-day  the  Corean  dress  and  coiffure,  as  seen  in 
Peking,  are  subjects  for  curiosity  and  merriment.  The  lack  of  a 
long  queue,  and  the  very  different  cut,  form,  and  general  appear- 
ance of  these  eastern  strangers,  strike  the  eye  of  mandarin  and 
street  laborer  alike,  very  much  as  a gentleman  in  knee-breeches, 
cocked  hat,  and  peruke,  or  the  peasant  costumes  at  Castle  Garden, 
appear  to  a New  Yorker,  stepping  from  the  elevated  railway,  on 
Broadway. 

Yet  from  the  fourteenth  to  the  seventeenth  century,  the  Chinese 
gentleman  dressed  like  the  Corean  of  to-day,  and  the  mandarin  of 
Canton  or  Nanking  was  as  innocent  of  the  Tartar  hair-tail  as  is  the 
citizen  of  Seoul.  The  Coreans  simply  adhere  to  the  fashions  pre- 
valent during  the  Ming  era.  The  Chinese,  in  the  matter  of  garb, 
however  loath  foreigners  may  be  to  credit  it,  are  more  progressive 
than  their  Corean  neighbors. 

To  the  house  of  Ni  belongs  also  the  greater  honor  of  abolish- 


NEW  CHO-SEN. 


83 


ing  at  least  two  cruel  customs  which  had  their  roots  in  supersti- 
tion. Heretofore  the  same  rites  which  were  so  long  in  vogue  in 
Japan,  traces  of  which  were  noticed  even  down  to  the  seventeenth 
century,  held  unchallenged  sway  in  Corea.  Ko-rai-chang,  though 
not  fully  known  in  its  details,  was  the  habit  of  burying  old  men 
alive.  Ia-chei  was  the  offering  up  of  human  sacrifices,  presumably 
to  the  gods  of  the  mountains  and  the  sea.  Both  of  these  classes 
of  rites,  at  once  superstitious  and  horrible,  were  anciently  very  fre- 
quent ; nor  was  Buddhism  able  to  utterly  abolish  them.  In  the 
latter  case,  they  choked  the  victims  to  death,  and  then  threw  them 
into  the  sea.  The  island  of  Chansan  was  especially  noted  as  the 
place  of  propitiation  to  the  gods  of  the  sea. 

The  first  successors  of  the  founder  of  the  house  of  Ni  held 
great  power,  which  they  used  for  the  good  of  the  people,  and 
hence  enjoyed  great  popularity.  The  first  after  Taijo  reigned  two 
years,  from  1398  to  1400.  Hetai-jong,  who  came  after  him,  ruled 
eighteen  years,  and  among  other  benefits  conferred,  established 
the  Sin-mun-ko,  or  box  for  the  reception  of  petitions  addressed 
directly  to  the  king.  Into  this  coffer,  complaints  and  prayers  from 
the  people  could  lawfully  and  easily  be  dropped.  Though  still 
kept  before  the  gate  of  the  royal  palace  in  Seoul,  it  is  stated  that 
access  to  it  is  now  difficult.  It  seems  to  exist  more  in  name  than 
in  fact.  Among  the  first  diplomatic  acts  of  King  Hetai-jong  was 
to  unite  with  the  Chinese  emperor,  in  a complaint  to  the  mikado 
of  Japan,  against  the  buccaneers,  whom  the  authorities  of  the 
latter  country  were  unable  to  control.  Hence  the  remonstrance 
was  only  partially  successful,  and  the  evil,  which  was  aggravated 
by  Corean  renegades  acting  as  pilots,  grew  beyond  all  bounds. 
These  rascals  made  a lucrative  living  by  betraying  their  own  coun- 
trymen. 

Siei-jong,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  Hetai-jong,  enjoyed  a long  reign  of  thirty-two  years,  during 
which  the  fortifications  of  the  capital  were  added  to  and  strength- 
ened. The  Manchius  beyond  the  Ever-wliite  Mountains  were 
then  beginning  to  rise  in  power,  and  Liao  Tung  was  disturbed 
by  the  raids  of  tribes  from  Mongolia,  which  the  Ming  generals 
were  unable  to  suppress.  When  the  fighting  took  place  within 
fifty  miles  of  her  own  boundary  river,  Ch5-sen  became  alarmed, 
and  looked  to  the  defence  of  her  own  frontier  and  capital.  In 
1450,  on  the  death  of  the  king,  who  “ in  time  of  peace  prepared 
for  war,”  Mun-jong,  his  son,  succeeded  to  royal  power.  As  usual 


84 


COREA. 


on  the  accession  of  a new  sovereign,  a Chinese  ambassador  was 
despatched  from  Peking,  which  had  been  the  Ming  capital  since 
1614,  to  Seoul,  to  confer  the  imperial  patent  of  investiture.  This 
dignitary,  on  his  return,  wrote  a book  recounting  his  travels, 
under  the  title  of  “ Memorandum  concerning  the  Affairs  of  Cho- 
sen.” According  to  this  writer,  the  military  frontier  of  Corea  at 
that  time  was  at  the  Eastern  Mountain  Barrier,  a few  miles  north- 
west of  the  present  Border  Gate.  Palladius,  the  Russian  writer, 
also  states  that,  during  the  Ming  dynasty,  three  grades  of  for- 
tresses were  erected  on  the  territory  between  the  Great  Wall  and 
the  Yalu  River,  “to  guard  against  the  attacks  of  the  Coreans.” 

It  is  more  in  accordance  with  the  facts  to  suppose  that  the  Chi- 
nese erected  these  fortifications  to  guard  against  invasion  from  the 
Manchius  and  other  northern  tribes  that  were  ravaging  Liao  Tung, 
rather  than  against  the  Coreans.  These  defences  did  not  avail  to 
keep  back  the  invasion  which  came  a generation  or  two  later,  and 
“ the  Corean  frontier,”  which  the  Chinese  traveller,  in  1450,  found 
much  further  west  than  even  the  present  “wall  of  stakes,”  shows 
that  the  neutral  territory  was  then  already  established,  and  larger 
than  it  now  is.  Of  this  strip  of  rich  forest  and  ginseng  land,  with 
many  well-watered  and  arable  valleys,  once  cultivated  and  popu- 
lous, but  since  the  fifteenth  century  desolate,  we  shall  hear  again. 
In  Chinese  atlases  the  space  is  blank,  with  not  one  village  marked 
where,  until  the  removal  by  the  Chinese  government  of  the  inhabi- 
tants westward,  there  was  a population  of  300,000  souls.  The  de- 
population of  this  large  area  of  fertile  soil  was  simply  a Chinese 
measure  of  military  necessity,  which  compelled  her  friendly  ally 
Cho-sen,  for  her  own  safety,  to  post  sentinels  as  far  west  of  her 
boundary  river  as  the  Eastern  Mountain  Bander,  described  by  the 
imperial  envoy  in  1450. 

The  century  which  saw  America  discovered  in  the  west,  was 
that  of  Japan’s  greatest  activity  on  the  sea.  On  every  coast  within 
their  reach,  from  Tartarv  to  Tonquin,  and  from  Luzon  to  Siam, 
these  bold  marauders  were  known  and  feared.  The  Chinese 
learned  to  bitterly  regret  the  day  when  the  magnetic  needle,  in- 
vented by  themselves,  got  into  the  hands  of  these  daring  island- 
ers. The  wounded  eagle  that  felt  the  shaft,  which  had  been  feath- 
ered from  his  own  plumes,  was  not  more  to  be  pitied  than  the 
Chinese  people  that  saw  the  Japanese  craft  steering  across  the 
Yellow  Sea  to  ravage  and  ruin  their  cities,  guided  by  the  compass 
bought  in  China.  They  not  only  harried  the  coasts,  but  went  far 


NEW  CHO-SEN. 


85 


up  the  rivers.  In  1523,  they  landed  even  at  Ningpo,  and  in  the 
fight  the  chief  mandarin  of  the  city  was  killed. 

Yet,  with  the  exception  of  incursions  of  these  pirates,  Cho-sen 
enjoyed  the  sweets  of  peace,  and  two  centuries  slipped  away  in 
Morning  Calm.  The  foreign  vessels  from  Europe  which  first,  in 
1530,  touched  at  the  province  of  Bungo,  in  Southern  Japan,  may 
possibly  have  visited  some  part  of  the  Corean  shores.  Between 


1540  and  1546  four  arrivals  of  “ black  ships  ” from  Portugal,  are 
known  to  have  called  at  points  in  Japan.  It  was  from  these  the 
Japanese  learned  how  to  make  the  gunpowder  and  firearms  which, 
before  the  close  of  the  century,  were  to  be  used  with  such  deadly 
effect  in  Corea. 

Now  came  back  to  Europe  accounts  of  China  and  Japan — which 
were  found  to  be  the  old  Kathay,  and  Zipangu  of  Polo  and  the  Fran- 


86 


COREA. 


ciscans — and  of  “ Coria,”  which  Polo  had  barely  mentioned.  It  was 
from  the  Portuguese,  that  Europe  first  learned  of  this  middle  land 
between  the  mighty  domain  of  the  Mings,  and  the  empire  in  the 
sea.  Stirred  by  the  spirit  of  adventure  and  enterprise,  and  un- 
willing that  the  Iberian  peninsulars  should  gain  all  the  glory,  an 
English  “ Society  for  the  Discovery  of  Unknown  Lands  ” was 
formed  in  1555.  A voyage  was  made  as  far  as  Novaia  Zemlia 
and  Weigatz,  but  neither  Corea  nor  Cathay  was  reached.  Other 
attempts  to  find  a northeast  passage  to  India  failed,  and  Asia  re- 
mained uncircumnavigated  until  our  own  and  Nordenskold’s  day. 
The  other  attempts  to  discover  a northwest  passage  to  China 
around  the  imaginary  cape,  in  which  North  America  was  supposed 
to  terminate,  and  through  the  equally  fictitious  straits  of  Anian, 
resulted  in  the  discoveries  of  the  Cabots,  and  of  Hudson  and  Fro- 
bisher— of  the  American  continent  from  the  Hudson  River  to 
Greenland,  but  the  way  to  China  lay  still  around  Africa. 

From  Japan,  the  only  possibility  of  danger  during  these  two  cen- 
times was  likely  to  come.  In  the  north,  west,  and  south,  on  the 
main  land,  hung  the  banners  of  the  Ming  emperors  of  China,  and, 
as  the  tribute  enforced  was  very  light,  the  protection  of  her  great 
neighbor  was  worth  to  Clio-sen  far  more  than  the  presents  she 
gave.  From  China  there  was  nothing  to  fear. 

At  first  the  new  dynasty  sent  ships,  embassies,  and  presents 
regularly  to  Japan,  which  were  duly  received,  yet  not  at  the  mi- 
kado’s palace  in  Kioto,  but  at  the  sho-gun’s  court  at  Kamakura, 
twelve  miles  from  the  site  of  the  modern  Japanese  capital,  Tokio. 
But  as  the  Ashikaga  family  became  effeminate  in  life,  their  power 
waned,  and  rival  chiefs  started  up  all  over  the  country.  Clan 
fights  and  chronic  intestine  war  became  the  rule  in  Japan.  Only 
small  areas  of  territory  were  governed  from  Kamakura,  while 
the  mikado  became  the  tool  and  prey  of  rival  daimios.  One  of 
these  petty  rulers  held  Tsushima,  and  traded  at  a settlement  on 
the  Corean  coast  called  Fusan,  by  means  of  which  some  inter- 
course was  kept  up  between  the  two  countries.  The  Japanese 
government  had  always  made  use  of  Tsushima  in  its  communica- 
tions with  the  Coreans,  and  the  agency  at  Fusan  was  composed 
almost  exclusively  of  retainers  of  the  feudal  lord  of  this  island.  The 
journey  by  land  and  sea  from  Seoul  to  Kamakura,  often  consumed 
two  or  three  months,  and  with  civil  wars  inland  and  piracy  on  the 
water,  intercourse  between  the  two  countries  became  less  and  less. 
The  last  embassy  from  Seoul  was  sent  in  1460,  but  after  that, 


NEW  CHO-SEN. 


87 


owing  to  continued  intestine  war,  the  absence  of  the  Coreans  was 
not  noticed  by  the  Ashikagas,  and  as  the  Tsushima  men  purposely 
kept  their  customers  ignorant  of  the  weakness  of  their  rulers  at 
Kamakura  and  Kioto,  lest  the  ancient  vassals  should  cease  to  fear 
their  old  master,  the  Coreans  remained  in  profound  ignorance  of 
the  real  state  of  affairs  in  Japan.  As  they  were  never  summoned, 
so  they  never  came.  Giving  themselves  no  further  anxiety  con- 
cerning the  matter,  they  rejoiced  that  such  disagreeable  duties 
were  no  longer  incumbent  upon  them.  It  is  even  said  in  Corean 
histories  that  their  government  took  the  offensive,  and  under  the 
reign  of  the  king  Chung-jong  (1506-1544)  captured  Tsushima  and 
several  other  Japanese  islands,  formerly  tributary  to  Corea.  What- 
ever fraction  of  truth  there  may  be  in  this  assertion,  it  is  certain 
that  Japan  afterward  took  ample  revenge  on  the  score  both  of 
neglect  and  of  reprisal. 

So,  under  the  idea  that  peace  was  to  last  forever,  and  the  morn- 
ing calm  never  to  know  an  evening  storm,  the  nation  relaxed  all 
vigilance.  Expecting  no  danger  from  the  east,  the  military  re- 
sources were  neglected,  the  army  was  disorganized,  and  the  cas- 
tles were  allowed  to  dilapidate  into  ruin.  The  moats  filled  and 
became  shallow  ditches,  choked  with  vegetation,  the  walls  and 
ramparts  crumbled  piecemeal,  and  the  barracks  stood  roofless. 
As  peace  wore  sweeter  charms,  and  as  war  seemed  less  and  less 
probable,  so  did  all  soldierly  duties  become  more  and  more  irk- 
some. The  militia  system  was  changed  for  the  worse.  The  en- 
rolled men,  instead  of  being  called  out  for  muster  at  assigned 
camps,  and  trained  to  field  duty  and  the  actual  evolutions  of  war, 
were  allowed  to  assemble  at  local  meetings  to  perform  only  holi- 
day movements.  The  muster  rolls  were  full  of  thousands  of 
names,  but  off  paper  the  army  of  Corea  was  a phantom.  The 
people,  dismissing  all  thought  of  possibility  of  war,  gave  them- 
selves no  concern,  leaving  the  matter  to  the  army  officials,  who 
drew  pay  as  though  in  actual  war.  They,  in  turn,  devoted  them- 
selves to  dissipation,  carousing,  and  sensual  indulgence.  It  was 
while  the  country  was  in  such  a condition  that  the  summons  of 
Japan’s  greatest  conqueror  came  to  them  and  the  Coreans  learned, 
for  the  first  time,  of  the  fall  of  Ashikaga,  and  the  temper  of  their 
new  master. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


EVENTS  LEADING  TO  THE  JAPANESE  INVASION. 

China  and  Japan  are  to  eacli  other  as  England  and  the  United 
States.  The  staid  Chinaman  looks  at  the  lively  Japanese  with 
feelings  similar  to  those  of  John  Bull  to  his  American  “ cousin.” 
Though  as  radically  different  in  blood,  language,  and  tempera- 
ment as  are  the  Germans  and  French,  they  are  enough  ahke  to 
find  food  for  mutual  jealousy.  They  discover  ground  for  irritation 
in  causes,  which,  between  nations  more  distant  from  each  other, 
would  stir  up  no  feeling  whatever.  China  considers  Japan  a 
young,  vain,  and  boasting  stripling,  whose  attitude  ought  ever 
to  be  that  of  the  pupil  to  the  teacher,  or  the  child  to  the  father. 
Japan,  on  the  contrary,  considering  Cliina  as  an  old  fogy,  far  be- 
hind the  age,  decayed  in  constitution  and  fortune  ahke,  and  more 
than  ready  for  the  grave,  resents  all  dictation  or  assumption  of 
superiority.  Even  before  their  adoption  of  the  forces  of  occiden- 
tal civilization  in  this  nineteenth  century,  something  of  this 
haughty  contempt  for  China  influenced  the  Japanese  mind.  Japan 
ever  refused  to  become  vassal  or  tributary  to  China,  and  the  mem- 
ory of  one  of  her  military  usurpers,  who  accepted  the  honorary 
title  of  Nihon-O,  or  King  of  Japan,  from  the  Chinese  Emperor,  is  to 
this  day  loaded  with  increasing  execration.  It  has  ever  been  the 
practice  of  the  Japanese  court  and  people  cheerfully  to  heap  upon 
their  mikado  all  the  honors,  titles,  poetical  and  divine  appellations 
which  belong  also  to  the  Chinese  emperor. 

To  conquer  or  humble  their  mighty  neighbor,  to  cross  their 
slender  swords  of  divine  temper  with  the  clumsy  blades  of  the 
continental  braves,  has  been  the  ambition  of  more  than  one  Ja- 
panese captain.  But  Hideyoshi  alone  is  the  one  hero  in  Japanese 
annals  who  actually  made  the  attempt. 

As  the  Mongol  conquerors  issuing  from  China  had  used  Corea 
as  their  point  of  departure  to  invade  Japan,  so  Hideyoshi  resolved 
to  make  the  peninsula  the  road  for  his  armies  into  China.  After 


EVENTS  LEADING  TO  THE  JAPANESE  INVASION. 


89 


two  centuries  of  anarchy  in  Japan,  he  followed  up  the  work  which 
Nobunaga  had  begun  until  the  proudest  daimio  had  felt  the 
weight  of  his  arm,  and  the  empire  was  at  peace. 

Yet,  although  receiving  homage  and  congratulations  from  his 
feudal  vassals,  once  proud  princes,  Hideyoshi  was  irritated  that 
Cho-sen,  which  he,  with  all  Japanese,  held  to  be  a tributary  prov- 
ince, failed  to  send  like  greetings.  Since,  to  the  Ashikagas,  she 
had  despatched  tribute  and  embassies,  he  was  incensed  that  similar 
honors  were  not  awarded  to  him,  though,  for  over  a century,  all 
official  relations  between  the  two  countries  had  ceased. 

On  the  31st  day  of  July,  1585,  Hideyoshi  was  made  Kuam- 
baku,  or  Regent,  and  to  celebrate  his  elevation  to  this,  the  highest 
office  to  which  a subject  of  the  mikado’s  could  aspire,  he  shortly 
afterward  gave  a great  feast  in  Kioto,  and  proclaimed  holiday 
throughout  the  empire.  This  feast  was  graced  by  the  presence 
of  his  highest  feudatories,  lords,  and  captains,  court  nobles  and 
palace  ladies  in  their  richest  robes.  Among  others  was  one  Yasu- 
hiro,  a retainer  of  the  lord  of  Tsushima.  Hideyoslii’s  memory 
had  been  refreshed  by  his  having  had  read  to  him,  from  the  an- 
cient chronicles,  the  account  of  Jingu  Kogo’s  conquests  in  the 
second  century.  He  announced  to  his  captains  that,  though  Cho- 
sen was  from  ancient  times  tributary  to  Japan,  yet  of  late  years 
her  envoys  had  failed  to  make  visits  or  to  send  tribute.  He  then 
appointed  Yasuhiro  to  proceed  to  Seoul,  and  remind  the  king  and 
court  of  their  duty. 

The  Japanese  envoy  was  a bluff  old  campaigner,  very  tall,  and 
of  commanding  mien.  His  hair  and  beard  had  long  since  turned 
white  under  years  and  the  hardships  of  war.  His  conduct  was 
that  of  a man  accustomed  to  command  and  to  instant  obedience, 
and  to  expect  victory  more  by  brute  courage  than  by  address. 
On  his  journey  to  Seoul  he  demanded  the  best  rooms  in  the  ho- 
tels, and  annoyed  even  the  people  of  rank  and  importance  with 
haughty  and  strange  questions.  He  even  laughed  at  and  inade 
sarcastic  remarks  about  the  soldiers  and  their  weapons.  This 
conduct,  so  different  from  that  of  previous  envoys,  greatly  sur- 
prised the  Corean  officials.  Heretofore,  when  a Japanese  officer 
came  to  Fusan,  native  troops  escorted  him  from  Fusan  to  Seoul, 
overawing  him  by  their  fierceness  and  insolence.  Yasuhiro,  accus- 
tomed to  constant  war  under  Hideyoshi’s  gourd-banner,  rode 
calmly  on  his  horse,  and,  amid  the  lines  of  lances  drawn  up  as  a 
guard  of  honor,  spoke  to  his  followers  in  a loud  voice,  telling  them 


90 


COREA. 


to  watch  the  escort  and  note  any  incivility.  In  a certain  village 
lie  joked  with  a Corean  soldier  about  his  spear,  saying,  with  a pun, 
that  it  was  too  short  and  unfit  for  use.  At  this,  all  the  Japanese 
laughed  out  loud.  The  Coreans  could  not  understand  the  lan- 
guage, but  hearing  the  laugh  were  angry  and  surprised  at  such 
boldness.  At  another  town  he  insulted  an  aged  official  who  was 
entertaining  him,  by  remarking  to  his  own  men  that  his  hair  and 
that  of  the  Japanese  grew  gray  by  years,  or  by  war  and  manly 
hardships  ; “ but  •\vhat,”  cried  he,  “ has  turned  this  man’s  hair 
gray  who  has  lived  all  his  life  amid  music  and  dancing  ? ” Tliis 
sarcastic  fling,  at  premature  and  sensual  old  age,  stimg  the  official 
so  that  he  became  speechless  with  rage.  At  the  capital,  creden- 
tials were  presented  and  a feast  given,  at  which  female  musicians 
sang  and  wine  flowed.  During  the  banquet,  when  all  were  well 
drunk,  the  old  hero  pulled  out  a gourd  full  of  pepper  seeds  and 
began  to  hand  them  around.  The  singing-girls  and  servants 
grabbed  them,  and  a disgraceful  scuffle  began.  This  was  what 
Yasuhiro  wanted.  Highly  disgusted  at  their  greedy  behavior,  he 
returned  to  his  quarters  and  poured  out  a tirade  of  abuse  about 
the  manners  of  the  people,  which  his  Corean  interpreter  duly  re- 
tailed to  his  superiors.  Yasuhiro  made  up  his  mind  that  the 
country  was  in  no  way  prepared  for  invasion  ; the  martial  spirit 
of  the  people  was  very  low,  and  the  habits  of  dissipation  and  pro- 
fligacy among  them  had  sapped  the  vigor  of  the  men. 

To  the  offensive  conduct  of  the  envoy  was  added  the  irritation 
produced  by  the  language  of  Hideyoshi’s  summons ; for  in  his  let- 
ter he  had  used  the  imperial  form  of  address,  “ we,”  the  plural  of 
majesty.  Yasuhiro  asked  for  a reply  to  these  letters,  that  he  might 
return  speedily  to  Japan.  There  was  none  given  him,  and  the  Co- 
reans, pleading  the  flimsy  excuse  of  the  difficulty  of  the  voyage, 
refused  to  send  an  embassy  to  Japan. 

Hidcyoshi  was  very'  angry  at  the  utter  failure  of  Yasuliiro’s 
mission.  He  argued  that  for  an  envoy  to  be  content  with  such  an 
answer  was  sure  proof  that  he  favored  the  Coreans.  Some  of 
Yasuhiro’s  ancestors,  being  daimios  of  Tsushima,  had  served  as 
envoys  to  Cho-sen,  and  had  enjoyed  a monopoly  of  the  lucrative 
commerce,  and  even  held  office  under  the  Corean  government. 
Reflecting  on  these  things,  Hideyoshi  commanded  Yasuhiro  and 
all  his  family  to  be  put  to  death. 

He  then  despatched  a second  envoy,  named  Yoshitoshi,  himself 
the  daimio  of  Tsu  Island,  who  took  with  him  a favorite  retainer, 


EVENTS  LEADING  TO  THE  JAPANESE  INVASION. 


91 


and  a priest,  named  Gensho,  as  liis  secretary.  They  reached  Seoul 
in  safety,  and,  after  the  formal  banquet,  demanded  the  despatch 
of  an  envoy  to  Japan.  The  Corean  dignitaries  did  not  reply  at 
once,  but  unofficially  sent  word,  through  the  landlord  of  the  hotel, 
that  they  would  be  glad  to  agree  to  the  demand  if  the  Japanese 
would  send  back  the  renegades  who  piloted  the  Japanese  pirates 
in  their  raids  upon  the  Corean  coasts.  Thereupon,  Yoshitoshi 
despatched  one  of  his  suite  to  Japan.  With  amazing  promptness 
he  collected  the  outlaws,  fourteen  in  number,  and  produced  them 
in  Seoul.  These  traitors,  after  confessing  their  crime,  were  led 
out  by  the  executioners  and  them  heads  knocked  off.  Meanwhile, 
having  tranquillized  “all  under  Heaven”  (Japan),  even  to  Yezo  and 
the  Ainos,  and  finding  nothing  “ within  the  four  seas  ” worth  cap- 
turing, Hideyoslii  cast  his  eyes  southward  to  the  little  kingdom 
well  named  Riu  Kiu,  or  the  Sleepy  Dragon  without  horns.  The 
people  of  these  islands,  called  Loo  Choo,  on  old  maps,  are  true 
Japanese  in  origin,  language,  and  dynasty.  They  speak  a dialect 
kindred  to  that  of  Satsuma,  and  their  first  historical  ruler  was 
Sunten,  a descendant  of  Tametomo,  who  fled  from  Japan  in  the 
twelfth  century.  Of  the  population  of  120,000  people,  one-tenth 
were  of  the  official  class,  who  lived  from  the  public  granaries. 
Saving  all  expense  in  war  equipment,  and  warding  off  danger  from 
the  two  great  powers  between  which  they  lay,  they  had  kept  the 
good  will  of  either  by  making  their  country  act  the  part  of  the  ass 
which  crouches  down  between  two  burdens.  They  made  presents 
to  both,  acknowledging  Japan  as  their  father,  and  China  as  their 
mother.  From  early  times  they  had  sent  tribute-laden  junks  to 
Ningpo,  and  had  introduced  the  Chinese  classics,  and  social  and 
political  customs.  When  the  Ming  dynasty  came  into  power,  the 
Chinese  monarch  bestowed  on  the  Prince  of  Riu  Kiu  a silver  seal, 
and  a name  for  his  country,  which  meant  “ hanging  balls,”  a refer- 
ence to  the  fact  that  their  island  chain  hung  like  a string  of  tas- 
sels on  the  skirt  of  China.  Another  of  their  ancient  native 
names  was  Okinawa,  or  “ long  rope,”  which  stretches  as  a cable 
between  Japan  and  Formosa.  Sugar  and  rice  are  the  chief  pro- 
ducts. Hideyoshi,  wishing  to  possess  this  group  of  isles  as  an  ally 
against  China,  and  acting  on  the  principle  of  baiting  with  a sprat 
in  order  to  catch  a mackerel,  sent  word  to  Riu  Kiu  to  pay  tribute 
hereafter  only  to  him. 

The  young  king,  fearing  the  wrath  of  the  mighty  lord  of  Nip- 
pon, sent  a priest  as  his  envoy,  and  a vessel  laden  with  tribute 


92 


COREA. 


offerings.  Arriving  in  the  presence  of  the  august  parvenu,  the 
priest  found  himself  most  graciously  received.  Hideyoslii  entered 
into  a personal  conversation  with  the  bonze,  and  set  forth  the 
benefits  of  Riu  Iviu's  adherence  to  Japan  alone,  and  her  ceasing  to 
send  tribute  to  China.  At  the  same  time  he  gave  the  priest 
clearly  to  understand  that,  willing  or  unwilling,  the  little  kingdom 
was  to  be  annexed  to  the  mikado’s  empire.  When  the  priest  re- 
turned to  Riii  Kiu  and  gave  the  information  to  the  king,  the  latter 
immediately  despatched  a vessel  to  China  to  inform  the  govern- 
ment of  the  designs  of  Japan. 

Meanwhile,  the  coart  at  Seoul,  highly  gratified  with  the  action 
of  the  Japanese  government  in  the  matter  of  the  renegade  pilots, 
gave  a banquet  to  the  embassy.  Yoshitoshi  had  audience  of  the 
king,  who  presented  him  with  a horse  from  his  own  stables.  An 
embassy  was  chosen  which  left  Seoul,  in  company  with  Yoshitoshi 
and  his  party,  and  their  musicians  and  servants,  in  April,  1590, 
and,  after  a journey  and  voyage  of  three  months,  arrived  at  Kioto 
during  the  summer  of  1590.  At  this  time  Hideyoslii  was  absent 
in  Eastern  Japan,  not  far  from  the  modem  city  of  Tokio,  besieging 
Odawara  Castle  and  reducing  “ the  second  Hojo  ” family  to  sub- 
mission. Arriving  at  Kioto  in  the  autumn,  he  postponed  audience 
with  the  Coreans  in  order  to  gain  time  for  war  preparations,  for 
his  heart  was  set  on  conquests  beyond  sea. 

Finally,  after  five  months  had  passed,  they  were  accorded  an 
interview.  They  were  allowed  to  ride  in  palanquins  under  the 
gateway  of  the  palace  without  dismounting — a mark  of  deference 
to  their  high  rank — all  except  nobles  of  highest  grade  being  com- 
pelled to  get  out  and  walk.  As  usual,  their  band  of  musicians  ac- 
companied them. 

They  report  Hideyoshi  as  a man  of  low  appearance,  but  with 
eyes  that  shot  fire  through  their  souls.  All  bowed  before  him, 
but  his  conduct  in  general  was  of  a very  undignified  character. 
This  did  not  raise  him  in  the  estimation  of  his  guests,  who  had 
already  discovered  his  true  position,  which  was  that  of  a subject 
of  the  mikado,  whose  use  of  the  imperial  “ we  ” in  his  letters  was, 
in  their  eyes,  a preposterous  assumption  of  authority.  They  de- 
livered the  king’s  letter,  which  was  addressed  to  Hideyoshi  on 
terms  of  an  equal  as  a Koku  O (king  of  a nation,  in  distinction 
from  the  title  of  Whang  Ti,  by  which  title  the  Heavenly  Ruler,  or 
Emperor — the  Mikado  of  Japan,  or  the  Emperor  of  China — is 
addressed).  The  letter  contained  the  usual  commonplaces  of 


EVENTS  LEADING  TO  THE  JAPANESE  INVASION. 


93 


friendly  greeting,  the  names  of  the  envoys,  and  a reference  to  the 
list  of  accompanying  presents. 

The  presents — spoken  of  in  the  usual  terms  of  Oriental  mock 
modesty — consisted  of  two  ponies  and  fifteen  falcons,  with  harness 
for  bird  and  beast,  rolls  of  silk,  precious  drugs,  ink,  paper,  pens, 
and  twenty  magnificent  tiger-skins.  The  interview  over,  Hideyoshi 
wished  the  envoys  to  go  home  at  once.  This  they  declined  to  do, 
but,  leaving  Kioto,  waited  at  the  port  of  Sakai.  A letter  to  the 
king  finally  reached  them,  but  couched  in  so  insolent  a tone  that 
the  ambassadors  sent  it  back  several  times  to  be  purged.  Even  in 
its  improved  form  it  was  the  blustering  threat  of  a Japanese  bully. 
All  this  consumed  time,  which  was  just  what  Hideyoshi  wished. 

Some  years  before  this,  some  Portuguese  trading  ships  had 
landed  at  the  island  of  Tane,  off  the  south  of  Japan.  The  Japan- 
ese, for  the  first  time,  saw  Europeans  and  heard  their  unintelli- 
gible language.  At  first  all  attempts  to  understand  them  were  in 
vain.  A Chinese  ship  happened  to  arrive  about  the  same  time,  on 
which  were  some  sailors  who  knew  a little  Portuguese,  and  thus 
communications  were  held.  The  foreigners,  being  handsomely 
treated,  gave  their  hosts  some  firearms,  probably  pistols,  taught 
their  use,  and  how  to  make  powder.  These  “ queer  things,  able 
to  vomit  thunder  and  lightning,  and  emitting  an  awful  smell,” 
were  presented  to  Shimadzii,  the  daimio  of  Satsuma,  who  gave 
them  to  Hideyoshi.  Among  the  presents,  made  in  return  to  Cho- 
sen, were  several  of  these  new  weapons  made  by  Japanese.  They 
were  most  probably  sent  as  a hint,  like  that  of  the  Pequot’s  offer- 
ing of  the  arrows  wrapped  in  snake-skin.  With  them  were  phea- 
sants, stands  of  swords  and  spears,  books,  rolls  of  paper,  and  four 
hundred  gold  lcoban  (a  coin  worth  about  $5.00). 

With  the  returning  embassy,  Hideyoshi  sent  the  priest  and  a 
former  colleague  of  Yoshitoshi  to  Seoul.  They  were  instructed  to 
ask  the  king  to  assist  Hideyoshi  to  renew  peaceful  relations  be- 
tween Japan  and  China.  These,  owing  to  the  long  continued 
piratical  invasions  from  Japan,  during  the  anarchy  of  the  Ashi- 
kaga,  had  been  suspended  for  some  years  past. 

The  peaceful  influences  of  Christianity’s  teachings  now  came 
between  these  two  pagan  nations,  in  the  mind  and  person  of  Yoshi- 
toshi, who  had  professed  the  faith  of  Jesus  as  taught  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries  from  Portugal,  then  in  Japan.  Be  this  as  it 
may,  Yoshitoshi,  who  had  been  in  Seoul,  and  lived  in  Tsushima, 
being  well  acquainted  with  the  military  resources  of  the  three 


94 


COREA. 


countries,  knew  that  war  would  result  in  ruin  to  Cho-sen,  while, 
in  measuring  their  swords  with  China,  the  Japanese  were  at  fear- 
ful odds.  Animated  by  a desire  to  prevent  bloodshed,  he  resolved 
to  mediate  with  the  olive  branch.  He  started  on  an  independent 
mission,  at  his  own  cost,  to  persuade  the  Coreans  to  use  their  good 
offices  at  mediation  between  Japan  and  China,  and  thus  prevent 
war.  Arriving  at  Fusan,  in  1591,  he  forwarded  his  petition  to 
Seoul,  and  waited  in  port  ten  days  in  hopes  of  the  answer  he  de- 
sired. But  all  was  in  vain.  He  received  only  a letter  containing 
a defiant  reply  to  his  master’s  bullying  letter.  In  sadness  he  re- 
turned to  Kioto,  and  reported  his  ill-success.  Surprised  and  en- 
raged at  the  indifference  of  the  Coreans,  Hideyoshi  pushed  on  his 
war  preparations  with  new  vigor.  He  resolved  to  test  to  its 
utmost  the  military  strength  of  Japan,  in  order  to  humble  China 
as  well  as  her  vassal.  Accustomed  to  victory  under  the  gourd- 
banner  in  almost  every  battle  during  the  long  series  of  intestine 
wars  now  ended,  an  army  of  seasoned  veterans  heard  joyfully  the 
order  to  prepare  for  a campaign  beyond  sea. 

Hideyoshi,  during  this  year,  nominally  resigned  the  office  of 
Kuambaku,  in  favor  of  his  son,  and,  according  to  usage,  took  the 
title  of  Taiko,  by  which  name  (Taiko  Sama)  he  is  popularly  known, 
and  by  which  we  shall  refer  to  him.  Among  the  Coreans,  even  of 
to-day,  he  is  remembered  by  the  title  which  still  inspires  their 
admiration  and  terror — Kuambaku.  Chinese  Avriters  give  a gro- 
tesque account  of  Hideyoshi,  one  of  whose  many  names  they  read 
as  Ping-syew-kye.  They  call  him  “ the  man  under  a tree,”  in  re- 
ference to  his  early  nickname  of  Kinomoto.  He  is  also  dubbed 
“ King  of  Taiko.”  The  Jesuit  missionaries  speak  of  him  in  their 
letters  as  Quabacundono  (His  Lordship  the  Kuambaku),  or  by  one 
of  his  personal  names,  Faxiba  (Hasliiba). 

The  Coreans  were  now  in  a strait.  Though  under  the  protec- 
torate of  China,  they  had  been  negotiating  Avith  a foreign  power. 
How  would  China  like  this  ? Should  they  keep  the  entire  matter 
secret,  or  should  they  inform  their  suzerain  of  the  intended  inva- 
sion of  China  ? They  finally  resolved  upon  the  latter  course,  and 
despatched  a courier  to  Peking.  About  the  same  time  the  mes- 
senger from  Riu  Kiu  had  landed,  and  was  on  his  way  with  the 
same  tidings.  The  Riukiuan  reached  Peking  first,  and  the  Corean 
arrived  only  to  confirm  the  news.  Yet,  in  spite  of  such  overwhelm- 
ing evidence  of  the  designs  of  Japan,  the  colossal  “ tortoise  ” could, 
at  first,  scarce  believe  “ the  bee  ” would  attempt  to  sting. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


THE  INVASION— ON  TO  SEOUL. 

For  the  pictures  of  camps,  fleets,  the  details  of  armory  and 
commissariat,  and  all  the  pomp  and  circumstance  that  make  up 
the  bright  side  of  Japanese,  war  preparations  in  1591  and  1592,  we 
are  indebted,  not  only  to  the  Japanese  writers,  but  to  those  eye 
•witnesses  and  excellent  “war’  correspondents,”  the  Portuguese 
missionaries  then  in  Iviushiu,  and  especially  to  Friar  Louis  Frois. 
He  tells  us  of  the  amplitude,  vigor,  and  brilliancy  of  Taiko’s  meas- 
ures for  invasion,  and  adds  that  the  expenses  therefor  greatly 
burdened  the  “ ethniques  ” or  daimios  who  had  to  pay  the  cost. 
Those  feudatories,  whose  domain  bordered  the  sea,  had  to  furnish 
a mighty  fleet  of  junks,  while  to  man  them,  the  quota  of  every 
hundred  houses  of  the  fishing  population  was  ten  sailors. 

The  land  and  naval  forces  assembled  at  Nagoya,  in  Hizen,  now- 
called  Karatsu,  and  famous  for  being  the  chief  place  for  the  manu- 
facture of  Hizen  porcelain.  Here  a superb  castle  was  built,  while 
huge  inns  or  resting-places  were  erected  all  along  the  road  from 
Kioto.  The  armies  gathered  here  during  the  war  numbered  500,- 
000  men  ; of  whom  150,000  formed  the  army  of  invasion,  60,000 
the  first  reserve,  while  100,000  were  set  apart  as  Taiko’s  body- 
guard ; the  remainder  were  sailors,  servants,  camp  followers,  etc. 

Beside  the  old  veterans  were  new  levies  of  young  soldiers,  and 
a corps  of  matchlock  men,  who  afterward  did  good  execution 
among  the  Coreans.  ' The  possession  of  this  new  and  terrible 
weapon  gave  the  invaders  a mighty  advantage  over  their  enemies. 
Though  firearms  had  been  known  and  manufactured  in  Japan  for 
a half  century,  this  was  the  first  time  they  were  used  against  for- 
eign enemies,  or  on  a large  scale.  Taiko  also  endeavored  to  hire 
or  buy  from  the  Portuguese  two  ships  of  war,  so  as  to  use  their 
artillery  ; but  in  this  he  failed,  and  the  troops  were  despatched  in 
native-built  vessels.  These  made  a gallant  display  as  they  crowded 
together  by  hundreds.  At  the  signal,  given  by  the  firing  of  can- 


06 


COREA. 


non,  the  immense  fleet  hoisted  sail  and,  under  a fresh  breeze,  bore 
away  to  the  west. 

Their  swelling  sails,  made  of  long  sections  of  canvass  laced 
together,  vertically,  at  their  edges,  from  stem  to  boom  (thus  dif- 
fering from  the  Chinese,  which  are  laced  horizontally),  were  in- 
scribed with  immense  crests  and  the  heraldic  derices  of  feudal- 
ism, mail}1  feet  in  diameter.  Near  the  top  were  cross-wise  bands 
or  stripes  of  black.  The  junks  of  Satsuma  could  be  distinguished 
by  the  white  cross  in  a circle ; those  of  Higo  by  the  broad-banded 
ring.  On  one  were  two  crossed  arrow-feathers,  on  others  the 
chess-board,  the  “ cash  ” coin  and  palm-leaves,  the  butterfly,  the 
cloisonne  symbol,  the  sun,  the  fan,  etc.  Innumerable  banners, 
gay  with  armorial  designs  or  inscribed  with  Buddhist  texts,  hung 
on  their  staves  or  fluttered  gaily  as  flags  and  streamers  from  the 
mastheads.  Stuck  into  the  back  of  many  of  the  distinguished 
veterans,  or  officers,  were  the  sashi-mono,  or  bannerets.  Kato 
Iviyomasa,  being  a strict  Buddhist,  had  for  the  distinctive  blazon 
of  his  back-pennant,  and  on  the  banners  of  his  division,  the  prayer 
and  legend  of  his  sect,  the  Nicliirenites,  “ Namtj  miyo  ho  renge  kio” 
(Glory  to  the  Holy  Lotus,  or  Glory  to  the  salvation-bringing  book 
of  the  Holy  Law  of  Buddha).  On  the  forward  deck  were  ranged 
heavy  shields  of  timber  for  the  protection  of  the  archers.  These, 
at  close  quarters,  were  to  be  let  down  and  used  as  boarding 
planks,  when  the  sword,  pike,  and  grappling-hook  came  into  play. 
Huge  tassels,  dangling  from  the  prows  like  the  manes  of  horses, 
tossed  tip  and  down  as  the  ships  rode  over  the  waves.  Each  junk 
had  a huge  eye  painted  at  the  prow,  to  look  out  and  find  the  path  in 
the  sea.  With  the  squadron  followed  hundreds  of  junks,  laden  with 
salt  meat,  rice-wine,  dried  fish,  and  rice  and  beans,  which  formed 
the  staple  of  the  invaders  commissariat  for  man  and  horse.  Trans- 
port junks,  with  cargoes  of  flints,  arrows,  ball,  powder,  wax  can- 
dles, ship  and  camp  stores,  “not  forgetting  a single  thing,”  sailed 
soon  after,  as  well  as  the  craft  containing  horses  for  the  cavalry. 

Taiko  did  not  go  to  Corea  himself,  being  dissuaded  by  his 
aged  mother.  The  court  also  wished  no  weaker  hand  than  his  to 
hold  the  reins  of  government  while  the  army  was  on  foreign 
shores.  The  men  to  whom  he  entrusted  the  leadership  of  the  ex- 
pedition, were  Konishi  Yukinaga  and  Kato  Kiyomasa.  To  the 
former,  he  presented  a fine  war  horse,  telling  him  to  “ gallop  over 
the  bearded  savages  ” with  it,  while  to  the  latter  he  gave  a battle- 
flag.  Konishi  was  an  impetuous  young  man,  only  twenty-three  years 


THE  INVASION— ON  TO  SEOUL. 


97 


of  age.  He  was  a favorite  of  Taiko,  and  sprung  like  the  latter  from 
the  common  people,  being  the  son  of  a medicine  dealer.  His 
crest  or  banner  was  a huge,  stuffed,  white  paper  bag,  such  as  drug- 
gists in  Japan  use  as  a shop  sign.  In  this  he  followed  the  example 
of  his  august  chief,  who,  despising  the  brocade  banners  of  the  im- 
perial generals,  stuck  a gourd  on  a pole  for  his  colors.  For  every 
victory  he  added  another  gourd,  until  his  immense  cluster  con- 
tained as  many  proofs  of  victory  as  there  are  bamboo  sticks  in  an 
umbrella.  The  “ gourd-banner  ” became  the  emblem  of  infallible 
victory.  Konishi  also  imitated  his  master  in  his  tactics — impetu- 
ous attack  and  close  following  up  of  victory. 

Konishi  was  a Christian,  an  ardent  convert  to  the  faith  of  the 
Jesuit  fathers,  by  whom  he  had  been  baptized  in  1584.  In  their 
writings,  they  call  him  “ Don  Austin  ” — a contraction  of  Augustine. 
Other  Christian  lords  or  daimios,  who  personally  led  their  troops 
in  the  field  with  Konishi,  were  Arima,  Omura,  Amakusa,  Bungo, 
and  Tsushima.  The  personal  name  of  the  latter,  a former  envoy  to 
Corea,  of  whom  we  have  read  before,  was  Yoshitoshi.  He  was  the 
son-in-law  of  Konishi.  Kuroda,  as  Mr.  Ernest  Satow  has  shown, 
is  the  “ Kondera  ” of  the  Jesuit  writers. 

Kato  Kiyomasa  was  a noble,  whose  castle  seat  was  at  Kumamoto 
in  Higo.  From  his  youth  he  had  been  trained  to  war,  and  had  a 
reputation  for  fierce  bravery.  It  is  said  that  Kato  suggested  to 
Taiko  the  plan  of  invading  Corea.  His  crest  was  a broad-banded 
circle,  and  his  favorite  weapon  was  a long  lance  with  but  one 
cross-blade  instead  of  two.  Kato  is  the  “ Toronosqui  ” of  the 
Jesuit  fathers,  who  never  weary  of  loading  his  memory  with 
obloquy.  This  “ vir  ter  execrandus  ” was  a fierce  Buddhist  and  a 
bitter  foe  to  Christianity.  A large  number  of  fresh  autographic 
writings  had  been  made  by  the  bonzes  in  the  monasteries  ex- 
pressly for  Kato’s  division.  The  silk  pennon,  said  to  have  been 
inscribed  by  Nichiren  himself  and  worn  by  Kato  during  the  in- 
vasion, is  now  in  Tokio,  owned  by  Katsu  Awa,  and  is  six  centimes 
old. 

With  such  elements  at  work  between  the  two  commanders, 
bitterness  of  religious  rivalry,  personal  emulation,  the  desire  to 
earn  glory  each  for  himself  alone,  the  contempt  of  an  old  veteran 
for  a young  aspirant,  harmony  and  unity  of  plan  were  not  to  be 
looked  for.  Nevertheless,  the  personal  qualities  of  each  general 
were  such  as  to  inspire  his  own  troops  with  the  highest  enthu- 
siasm, and  the  army  sailed  away  fully  confident  of  victory. 

7 


98 


COREA. 


What  were  the  objects  of  Taiko  in  making  this  war  ? Evi- 
dently his  original  thought  was  to  invade  and  humble  China. 
Then  followed  the  determination  to  conquer  Cho-sen.  Ambition 
may  have  led  him  to  rival  Ojin  Tenno,  who,  in  his  mother’s  womb, 
made  the  conquest  of  Shinra,  and,  as  the  deified  Hachiman, 
became  the  Japanese  god  of  war.  Lastly,  the  Jesuit  fathers  saw  in 
this  expedition  a plot  to  kill  ofl'  the  Christian  leaders  in  a foreign 
land,  and  thus  extirpate  Christianity  in  Japan.  To  ship  the 
Christians  oft'  to  a foreign  soil  to  die  of  wounds  or  disease,  was 
easier  than  to  massacre  them.  They  make  Taiko  a David,  and  his 
best  generals  Uriahs — though  Coligny,  slain  twenty  years  before, 
might  have  served  for  a more  modern  illustration. 

Certain  it  is  that  it  was  during  the  absence  of  the  Christian 
leaders  that  the  severest  persecutions  at  home  took  place.  It  is 
probable,  also,  that  his  jealousy  of  the  success  and  consequent 
popularity  of  the  Christian  generals  created  irresolution  in  Taiko’s 
mind,  leading  him  to  neglect  the  proper  support  of  the  expedition 
and  thus  to  bring  about  a gigantic  failure. 

Finally,  we  must  mention  the  theory  of  a Japanese  friend,  Mr. 
Egi  Takato,  who  held  that  Taiko,  having  whole  armies  of  unem- 
ployed warriors,  all  jealous  of  each  other,  was  compelled,  in  order 
to  ensure  peace  in  Japan,  to  find  employment  for  their  swords. 
His  idea  was  to  send  them  on  this  distant  “ frontier  service,”  and 
give  them  such  a taste  of  home-sickness  that  peaceful  life  in  Japan 
would  be  a desideratum  ever  afterward. 

The  Coreans,  by  their  own  acknowledgment,  were  poorly  pre- 
pared for  a war  with  the  finest  soldiers  in  Asia,  as  the  Japanese 
of  the  sixteenth  century  certainly  were.  Nor  had  they  any  leader 
of  ability  to  direct  their  efforts.  Their  king,  Sien-jo,  the  fifteenth 
of  the  house  of  Ni,  who  had  already  reigned  twenty-six  years,  was 
a man  of  no  personal  importance,  addicted  entirely  to  his  own 
pleasures,  a drunkard,  and  a debauchee.  Though  the  royal  pro- 
clamation was  speedily  issued,  calling  on  the  people  to  fortify 
their  cities,  to  rebuild  the  dilapidated  castles,  and  to  dig  out  the 
moats,  long  since  choked  by  mud  and  vegetation,  the  people  re- 
sponded so  slowly,  that  few  of  the  fortresses  were  found  in  order 
when  their  enemies  laid  siege  to  them.  Weapons  were  plentiful, 
but  there  were  no  firearms,  save  those  presented  as  curiosities  by 
the  Taiko  to  the  king.  There  was  little  or  no  military  organiza- 
tion, except  on  paper,  while  the  naval  defences  were  in  a sad 
plight.  However,  they  began  to  enroll  and  drill,  to  lay  up  stores 


THE  INVASION— ON  TO  SEOUL. 


99 


100 


COREA. 


of  fish  and  grain  for  the  army,  to  build  ships,  to  repair  their  walls, 
and  even  to  manufacture  rude  firearms. 

Yet  even  the  most  despondent  of  the  Coreans  never  dreamed 
that  the  Japanese,  on  their  first  arrival,  would  sweep  everything 
before  them  like  a whirlwind,  and  enter  the  capital  within  eighteen 
days  after  their  landing  at  Fusan.  One  of  the  first  castles  garri- 
soned and  provisioned  was  that  of  Tong-nai,  near  Fusan.  On 
the  morning  of  May  25,  1592,  the  sentinels  on  the  coast  descried 
the  Japanese  fleet  of  eight  hundred  ships,  containing  the  division  of 
Konishi.  Before  night  the  invaders  had  disembarked,  captured 
Fusan,  and  laid  siege  to  Tong-nai  Castle,  which  at  once  surren- 
dered. So  sudden  was  the  attack  that  the  governor  of  the  district, 
then  in  the  city,  was  unable  to  escape.  Konishi,  writing  a letter 
to  the  king,  gave  it  into  the  hands  of  the  governor,  and  made  him 
swear  to  dehver  it  safely,  promising  him  unconditional  liberty  if 
he  did  so.  The  governor  agreed,  and  at  once  set  out  for  Seoul  ; 
but  on  reaching  it  he  simply  said  he  had  escaped,  and  made  no 
mention  of  the  letter.  His  perjury  was  not  to  remain  undetected, 
as  later  events  proved.  Without  an  hour’s  delay  Konishi’s  di- 
vision, leaving  Tong-nai,  marched  up  the  Nak-tong  valley  to 
Shang-chiu. 

Kato’s  division,  delayed  by  a storm,  arrived  next  day.  Land- 
ing immediately,  he  saw  with  chagrin  the  pennons  of  his  rival  fly- 
ing from  the  ramparts  of  Tong-nai.  Angry  at  being  left  behind 
by  “ the  boy,”  he  took  the  more  northerly  of  the  two  routes  to  the 
capital.  The  two  rival  armies  were  now  straining  every  nerve  on 
a race  to  Seoul,  each  eager  to  destroy  all  enemies  on  the  march, 
and  reach  the  royal  palace  first.  Kuroda  and  other  generals  led 
expeditions  into  the  southern  provinces  of  Chulla  and  Chung- 
chong.  These  provinces  being  subdued,  and  the  castles  garri- 
soned, they  were  to  make  their  way  to  the  capital. 

The  Coreans  proved  themselves  especially  good  bowmen,  but 
inexpert  at  other  weapons,  their  swords  being  of  iron  only,  short, 
clumsy,  aud  easily  bent.  Their  spears,  or  rather  pikes,  were 
shorter  than  the  Japanese,  with  heavy  blades,  from  the  base  of 
which  hung  tassels.  The  iron  heads  were  hollow  at  the  base, 
forming  a socket,  in  which  the  staff  fitted.  The  Japanese  spear- 
heads, on  the  contrary,  were  riveted  down  and  into  the  wood, 
which  was  iron-banded  for  further  security,  making  a weapon  less 
likely  to  get  out  of  order,  while  the  blades  were  steel-edged.  The 
Corean  cavalry  had  heavy,  three-pronged  spears,  which  were  ex- 


THE  INVASION— ON  TO  SEOUL. 


101 


tremely  formidable  to  look  at,  but  being  so  heavy  as  to  be  un- 
wieldly  at  close  quarters,  they  did  little  execution.  Many  of  their 
suits  of  armor  were  handsomely  inlaid,  made  of  iron  and  leather. 


Corean  Knight  of  the  Sixteenth  Century. 


but  less  flexible  and  more  vulnerable  than  those  of  the  Japanese, 
which  were  of  interlaced  silk  and  steel  on  a background  of  tougn 
buckskin,  with  sleeves  of  cnain  mail.  The  foot  soldiers  on  either 
side  were  incased  in  a combination  of  iron  chain  and  plate  armor, 


102 


COREA. 


but  the  Coreans  had  no  glaves,  or  cross-blades  on  their  pikes,  and 
thus  were  nearly  helpless  against  their  enemy’s  cavalry.  The 
Japanese  were  smooth-shaven,  and  wore  stout  helmets,  with  ear- 
guards  and  visors,  but  the  Coreans,  with  open  helmets,  without 
visors,  and  whiskered  faces,  were  dubbed  “hairy  barbarians.” 
They  were  beginning  to  learn  the  use  of  powder,  which,  however, 
was  so  badly  mixed  as  to  be  exasperatingly  slow  in  burning. 
Their  very  few  firearms  were  of  the  rudest  and  most  cumbrous 
sort.  They  used  on  their  ramparts  a kind  of  wooden  cannon, 
made  of  bamboo-hooped  timber,  from  which  they  shot  heavy 
wooden  darts,  three  feet  long,  pointed  with  sharp-bladed,  Y-shaped 
iron  heads.  The  range  of  these  clumsy  missiles  was  very  short. 
The  Japanese,  on  the  contrary,  had  at  several  sieges  pieces  of  light 
brass  ordnance,  with  which  they  quickly  cleared  the  walls  of  the 
castles,  and  then  scaled  them  with  long  and  light  ladders,  made 
of  bamboo,  and  easily  borne  by  men  on  a run.  The  Japanese 
were  not  only  better  equipped,  but  their  tactics  were  superior. 
Their  firearms  frightened  the  Corean  horses,  and  the  long  spears 
and  halberds  of  their  cavalry  were  used  with  fearful  effect  while 
pm-suing  the  fugitives,  who  were  pierced  or  pulled  off  their  steeds, 
or  sabred  in  droves.  Few  bodies  of  native  troops  faced  the  inva- 
ders in  the  field,  while  fire-arrows,  gunpowder,  and  ladders  quickly 
reduced  the  castles.  Not  a few  of  the  Corean  officers  were  killed 
inside  their  fortresses  by  the  long  range  fire  of  the  sharp-shooters 
in  the  matchlock  corps. 

The  greater  share  of  glory  fell  to  Konishi,  the  younger  man. 
Taking  the  southern  route,  he  reached  the  castle  of  Shang-chiu,  in 
the  northwestern  part  of  Kiung-sang,  and  captured  it.  Leaving  a 
garrison,  he  pushed  on  to  Chiun-chiu.  This  fortress  of  Chiun- 
chiu  is  situated  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Chung-chong  province, 
and  on  the  most  northerly  of  the  two  roads,  over  which  Kato  was 
then  marching.  It  was  at  that  time  considered  to  be  the  strongest 
castle  in  the  peninsula.  On  it  rested  the  fate  of  the  capital.  It 
lay  near  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Han  River,  which  flows  past 
Seoul.  At  this  point  the  two  high  roads  to  the  capital,  on  which 
the  two  rivals  were  moving,  converged  so  as  to  nearly  touch.  Chiun- 
chiu  castle  lay  properly  on  Kato’s  route,  but  Konishi,  being  in  the 
advance,  invested  it  with  his  forces  and,  after  a few  days’  siege, 
captured  the  great  stronghold.  The  loss  of  the  Coreans  thus  far 
in  the  three  fortresses  seized  by  Konishi,  as  reported  by  Friar 
Frois,  was  5,000  men,  3,000  of  whom  fell  at  Chiun-chiu;  while  the 


THE  INVASION— ON  TO  SEOUL. 


103 


Japanese  had  lost  but  100  killed  and  400  wounded.  After  such  a 
victory,  “ Konishi  determined  to  conquer  all  Corea  by  himself.” 

Kato  and  his  army,  arriving  a few  days  after  the  victory, 
again  saw  themselves  outstripped.  Konislii’s  pennons  floated  from 
every  tower,  and  the  booty  was  already  disposed  of.  The  goal  of 
both  armies  was  now  “ the  Miaco  of  the  kingly  city  of  Coray.” 
Straining  every  nerve,  Kato  pressed  forward  so  rapidly  that  the 
two  divisions  of  the  Japanese  army  entered  Seoul  by  different 
gates  on  the  same  day.  No  resistance  was  offered,  as  the  king, 
court,  and  army  had  evacuated  the  city  three  days  before.  The 
brilliant  pageant  of  the  Japanese  army,  in  magnificent  array  of 
gay  silk  and  glittering  armor,  was  lost  on  the  empty  streets  of 
deserted  Seoul. 

When  Taiko  heard  of  the  success  of  his  lieutenants  in  Corea, 
especially  of  Konishi’s  exploits,  he  was  filled  with  joy,  and  cried 
out,  “ Now  my  own  son  seems  risen  from  the  dead.” 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


THE  CAMPAIGN  IN  THE  NORTH. 

The  court  at  Seoul  had  been  too  much  paralyzed  by  the  sudden 
invasion  to  think  of  or  carry  out  any  effective  means  of  resistance. 
Konishi  had  sent  letters  from  Pusan  and  Shang-chiu,  but  these, 
through  official  faithlessness  and  the  accidents  of  war,  had  failed 
in  their  purpose.  Konishi  was  too  fast  for  them.  When  the  news 
reached  Seoul,  of  the  fall  of  Chiun-chiu  castle,  the  whole  populace, 
from  palace  to  hut,  was  seized  with  a panic  which,  in  a few  horn’s, 
emptied  the  city.  The  soldiers  deserted  their  post,  and  the  cour- 
tiers their  king,  while  the  people  fled  to  the  mountains.  His  Ma- 
jesty resolved  to  go  with  his  court  into  Liao  Tung,  but  to  send 
the  royal  princes  into  the  northern  provinces,  that  the  people 
might  realize  the  true  state  of  affairs.  So  hurried  were  the  prep- 
arations for  flight,  which  began  June  9th,  that  no  food  was  pro- 
vided for  the  journey.  The  only  horses  to  be  obtained  were  farm 
and  pack  animals,  as  the  royal  stables  had  been  emptied  by  the 
runaway  soldiers.  The  rain  fell  heavily,  in  perpendicular  streams, 
soon  turning  the  roads  to  mire,  and  drenching  the  women  and 
children.  The  Corean  dress,  in  wet  weather,  is  cold  and  uncom- 
fortable, and  when  soaked  through,  becomes  extremely  heavy, 
making  a foot  journey  a severe  tax  on  the  strength.  To  add  to 
the  distress  of  the  king,  as  the  cortege  passed,  the  people  along 
the  road  clamored,  with  bitter  tears,  that  they  were  being  aban- 
doned to  the  enemy.  Tortured  with  hunger  and  fatigue,  the 
wretched  party  floundered  on. 

Their  first  day’s  journey  was  to  Sunto,  or  Kai  Seng,  thirty 
miles  distant.  Darkness  fell  upon  them  long  before  they  reached 
the  Rin-yin  River,  a tributary  of  the  Han,  which  joins  it  a few  miles 
above  Kang-wa  Island.  The  city  lay  beyond  it,  and  the  crossing 
of  the  stream  was  done  in  the  light  of  the  conflagration  kindled 
behind  them.  The  king  had  ordered  the  torch  to  be  applied  to 
the  barracks  and  fortifications  which  guarded  the  southern  bank 


THE  CAMPAIGN  IN  THE  NORTH. 


105 


of  the  river.  Another  motive  for  this  incendiary  act  was  to  de- 
prive their  pursuers  of  ready  materials  to  ferry  themselves  across 
the  river.  It  was  not  until  near  midnight  that  the  miserable  fugi- 
tives, tortured  with  hunger  and  almost  dead  with  fatigue,  entered 
the  city.  Though  feeling  safe  for  the  moment,  since  the  Japanese 
pursuers  could  not  cross  the  river  without  boats  or  rafts,  most  of 
the  king’s  household  were  doomed  still  to  suffer  the  pangs  of  hun- 
ger. The  soldiers  had  stolen  the  food  provided  for  the  party,  and 
the  king  had  a scant  supper,  while  his  household  remained  hungry 
until  the  next  day,  when  some  of  the  military  gave  them  a little 
rice.  The  march  was  resumed  on  the  following  morning  and  kept 
up  until  Ping-an  was  reached.  Here  they  halted  to  await  the 
progress  of  events. 

The  king  ordered  his  scattered  forces  to  rally  at  the  Rin-yin 
River,  and,  on  its  northern  bank,  to  make  a determined  stand. 

Kato  and  Konislii,  remaining  but  a short  time  in  the  capital, 
imited  their  divisions  and  pressed  forward  to  the  north.  Reach- 
ing the  Rin-yin  River,  they  found  the  Corean  junks  drawn  up  on 
the  opposite  side  in  battle  array.  The  Japanese,  being  without 
boats,  could  not  cross,  and  waited  vainly  during  several  days  for 
something  to  turn  up.  Finally  they  began  a feigned  retreat. 
This  induced  a portion  of  the  Corean  army  to  cross  the  river, 
when  the  Japanese  turned  upon  them  and  cut  them  down  with 
terrible  slaughter.  With  the  few  rafts  and  boats  used  by  the 
enemy,  the  Japanese  matchlock  men  rapidly  crossed  the  stream, 
shot  down  the  sailors  and  the  remaining  soldiers  in  the  junks,  and 
thus  secured  the  fleet  by  which  the  whole  army  crossed  and  began 
the  march  on  Ping-an. 

The  rival  Japanese  commanders,  Kato  and  Konislii,  who  had 
hitherto  refrained  from  open  quarrel,  now  found  it  impossible  to 
remain  longer  together,  and  drew  lots  to  decide  their  future  fields 
of  action  in  the  two  northern  provinces.  Ham-kiung  fell  to  Kato, 
who  immediately  marched  eastward  with  his  division,  taking  the  high 
road  leading  to  Gensan.  Konislii,  to  whom  the  province  of  Ping-an 
fell,  pushed  on  to  Ping-an  City,  arriving  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
river  toward  the  end  of  July,  or  about  three  weeks  after  leaving 
Seoul.  Here  he  went  into  camp,  to  await  the  reinforcements 
under  Kuroda  and  Yoshitoslii.  These  soon  afterward  arrived, 
having  traversed  the  four  provinces  bordering  on  the  Yellow  Sea. 

The  great  need  of  the  Japanese  was  floating  material ; next  to 
this,  their  object  was  to  discover  the  fords  of  the  river.  On 


106 


COREA. 


July  20th  they  made  a demonstration  against  the  fleet  of  junks 
along  the  front  of  the  city,  by  sending  out  a few  detachments  of 
matchlock  men  on  rafts.  Though  unsuccessful,  the  Corean  king 
was  so  frightened  that  he  fled  with  his  suite  to  Ai-chiu.  The 
garrison  still  remained  alert  and  defiant. 

Delay  made  the  Japanese  less  vigilant.  The  Corean  command- 
ers, noticing  this,  planned  to  surprise  their  enemy  by  a night 
attack.  Owing  to  bad  management  and  delay,  the  various  detach- 
ments did  not  assemble  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  until 
near  daylight.  Then  forming,  they  charged  furiously  upon  Ko- 
nishi’s  camp,  and,  taking  his  men  by  surprise,  earned  off  hundreds 
of  prisoners  and  horses,  the  cavalry  suffering  worse  than  the  infan- 
try. Kuroda’s  division  came  gallantly  to  their  support,  and  drove 
the  Coreans  back  to  the  river.  By  this  time  it  was  broad  day- 
light, and  the  cowardly  boat-keepers,  frightened  at  the  rout  of 
their  countrymen,  had  pushed  off  into  mid-stream.  Hundreds  of 
the  Coreans  were  drowned,  and  the  main  body,  left  in  the  lurch, 
were  obliged  to  cross  by  the  fords.  This  move  gave  the  Japanese 
the  possession  of  the  coveted  secret.  Flushed  with  victory,  the 
entire  army  crossed  over  later  on  the  same  day  and  entered  the 
city.  Dispirited  by  their  defeat,  the  garrison  fled,  after  flinging 
their  weapons  into  the  castle  moats  and  ditches  of  the  city  ; but 
all  the  magazines  of  grain,  dried  fish,  etc.,  were  now  in  the  hands 
of  the  invaders.  Frois  reports,  from  hearsay,  that  80,000  Coreans 
made  the  attack  on  Konishi’s  camp,  8,000  of  whom  were  slain. 

The  news  of  the  fall  of  Ping-an  City  utterly  demoralized  the 
Coreans,  so  that,  horses  being  still  numerous,  the  courtiers  de- 
serted the  king,  and  the  villagers  everywhere  looted  the  stores  of 
food  provided  for  the  army.  Many  of  the  fugitives  did  not  cease 
their  flight  until  they  had  crossed  the  Yalu  River,  and  found  them- 
selves on  Chinese  territory.  These  bore  to  the  Governor  of  Liao 
Tung  province,  who  had  been  an  anxious  observer  of  events,  the 
news  of  the  fall  of  Ping-an,  and  the  irresistible  character  of  the 
invasion.  The  main  body  of  the  Corean  army  went  into  camp 
at  Sun-an,  between  An-ton  and  Sun-chon.  In  Japan,  there  was 
great  rejoicing  at  the  news  received  from  the  frontier,  because,  as 
Frois  wrote,  Konishi,  “ in  twenty  days,  hath  subdued  so  mighty  a 
kingdom  to  the  crown  of  Japan.”  Taiko  sent  the  brilliant  young 
commander  a two-edged  sword  and  a horse — “ pledges  of  the  most 
peerless  honor  that  can  possibly  be  done  to  a man.” 

The  Japanese  soldiers  felt  so  elated  over  their  victory  that  they 


THE  CAMPAIGN  IN  THE  NORTH. 


107 


expected  immediate  orders  to  march  into  China.  With  this  pur- 
pose in  view,  Konishi  sent  word  to  the  fleet  at  Fusan  to  sail  round 
the  western  coast,  into  Ta-tong  River,  in  order  to  co-operate  with 
the  victorious  forces  at  Ping-an.  Had  this  junction  taken  place, 
it  is  probable  China  would  have  been  invaded  by  Japanese  ar- 
mies, and  a general  war  between  these  rival  nations  might  have 


turned  the  current  of  Asiatic  history.  This,  however,  was  not  to 
be.  Corean  valor,  with  the  aid  of  gunpowder  and  improved  naval 
construction,  prevented  this,  and  kept  three  hundred  miles  of  dis- 
tance, in  a mountainous  country,  between  the  Japanese  and  their 
base  of  supplies. 

Oriental  rhetoric  might  describe  the  situation  in  this  wise  : the 
eastern  dragon  of  invasion  flew  across  the  sea  in  winged  ships,  and 


108 


COREA. 


speedily  won  the  crystal  of  victory.  But  on  land  the  dragon  must 
go  upon  its  belly.  The  Corean  navy  snatched  the  jewel  from  the 
very  claws  of  the  dragon,  and  left  it  writhing  and  hungry. 

In  cool  western  phrase,  sinister,  but  significant,  Konishi  was 
soon  afterward  obliged  to  “ make  a change  of  base.”  The  bril- 
liant success  of  the  army  seems  to  have  impressed  the  Japanese 
naval  men  with  the  idea  that  there  was  nothing  for  them  to  do.  On 
the  contrary,  the  Cho-sen  people  set  to  work  to  improve  the  archi- 
tecture of  their  vessels  by  having  them  double-decked.  They  also 
provided  for  the  safety  of  their  fighting  men,  by  making  heavy 
bulwarks,  and  rearing,  along  the  upper  deck,  a line  of  strong 
planks,  set  edgewise,  and  bolted  together.  Behind  these,  archers 
discharged  their  missiles  without  danger,  while  from  port-holes 
below  they  fired  their  rude,  but  effective,  cannon.  Appearing  off 
the  inlet,  in  which  the  Japanese  fleet  lay  at  anchor,  they  at  first 
feigned  retreat,  and  thus  enticed  their  enemies  into  pursuit. 
"When  well  out  on  the  open  sea,  they  turned  upon  their  pursuers, 
and  then  their  superior  preparation  and  equipment  were  evident 
at  once. 

Lively  fighting  began,  but  this  time  the  Coreans  seemed  invul- 
nerable. They  not  only  gained  the  advantage  by  the  greater 
length  of  their  lances  and  grappling-hooks,  with  which,  using 
them  like  long  forks,  they  pulled  their  enemies  into  the  sea,  but 
they  sunk  a number  of  the  Japanese  junks,  either  by  their  artil- 
lery or  by  ramming  them  with  their  prows.  The  remnant  of  the 
beaten  fleet  crept  back  to  Fusan,  and  all  hope  of  helping  the  army 
was  given  up.  The  moral  effect  of  the  victory  upon  the  Corean 
people  was  to  inspire  them  to  sacrifice  and  resistance,  and  in 
many  skirmishes  they  gained  the  advantage.  They  now  awaited 
hopefully  the  approach  of  Chinese  reinforcements. 

To  the  Chinese  it  seemed  incredible  that  the  capture  of  the 
strongest  castles,  the  capital,  and  the  chief  northern  city,  could  be 
accomplished  without  the  treasonable  connivance  of  the  Coreans. 
In  order  to  satisfy  his  own  mind,  the  Chinese  mandarin  sent  a spe- 
cial agent  into  Corea  to  examine  and  report.  The  government  at 
Peking  were  even  more  suspicious,  but  after  some  hesitation,  they 
despatched,  not  without  misgiving,  a small  body  of  Chinese  sol- 
diers to  act  as  a body-guard  to  the  Corean  king.  These  braves 
crossed  the  frontier  ; but  while  on  their  way  to  Ping-an,  heard  ot 
the  fall  of  the  city,  and,  facing  about,  marched  back  into  Liao 
Tung.  The  king  and  the  fragments  of  his  court  now  sent  courier 


THE  CAMPAIGN  IN  THE  NORTH. 


109 


after  courier  with  piteous  appeals  to  Peking  for  aid,  even  offering 
to  become  the  subjects  of  China  in  return  for  succor  rendered.  A 
force  of  5,000  men  was  hastily  recruited  in  Liao  Tung,  who 
marched  rapidly  into  Corea.  Early  in  August  the  Japanese  pick- 
ets first  descried  the  yellow  silk  banners  of  the  Chinese  host. 
These  were  inscribed  with  the  two  characters  Tai-Ming  (Great 
Brightness),  the  distinctive  blazon  of  the  Ming  dynasty.  For  the 
first  time,  in  eight  centuries,  the  armies  of  the  rival  nations  were 
to  meet  in  pitched  battle. 

The  Chinese  seemed  confident  of  success,  and  moved  to  the 
attack  on  Ping-an  with  neither  wariness  nor  fear.  Having  in- 
vested the  city,  they  began  the  assault  on  August  27th.  The 
Japanese  allowed  them  to  enter  the  city  and  become  entan- 
gled in  its  narrow  lanes.  They  then  attacked  them  from  ad- 
vantageous positions,  which  they  had  occupied  previously,  assail- 
ing them  with  showers  of  arrows,  and  charging  them  with  then- 
long  lances.  One  body  of  the  Ming  soldiers  attempted  to  scale 
the  wall  of  a part  of  the  fortifications,  which  seemed  to  have  been 
neglected  by  the  Japanese,  when  near  the  top,  the  whole  face  of 
the  castle  being  covered  with  climbing  men,  the  garrison,  rushing 
from  their  hiding-places,  tumbled  over  or  speared  their  enemies, 
who  fell  down  and  into  the  mass  of  their  comrades  below.  Those 
not  killed  by  thrusts  or  the  fall,  were  shot  by  the  gunners  on  the 
ramparts,  and  the  Chinese  now  received  into  their  bosoms  a 
shower  of  lead,  against  which  their  armor  of  hide  and  iron  was  of 
slight  avail.  In  this  fight  the  Ming  commander  was  slain.  The 
rout  of  the  Chinese  army  was  so  complete,  that  the  fugitives  never 
ceased  their-  retreat  until  safely  over  the  border,  and  into  China. 

The  government  at  Peking  now  began  to  understand  the  power 
of  the  enemy  with  whom  they  had  to  deal.  An  army  of  40,000 
men  was  raised  to  meet  the  invaders,  and,  in  order  to  gain  time,  a 
man,  named  Chin  Ikei,  was  sent,  independently  of  the  Coreans,  to 
treat  with  Konishi  and  propose  peace.  Some  years  before  the 
Japanese  pirates  had  carried  off  a Chinaman  to  Japan,  where  he 
was  kept  captive  for  many  years.  Returning  to  China,  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Chin  Ikei,  and  gave  him  much  information 
concerning  the  country  and  people  of  his  captivity.  Chin  Ikei  was 
evidently  a mercenary  adventurer,  who  could  talk  Japanese,  and 
hoped  for  honors  and  promotion  by  acting  as  a go-between.  He 
had  no  commission  or  any  real  authority.  The  Chinese  seem  to 
have  used  him  only  as  a cat’s-paw. 


110 


COREA. 


Arriving  at  the  Corean  camp,  at  Sun-an,  early  in  October,  and 
fully  trusting  the  honor  of  the  Japanese  commander,  Chin  Ikei 
ventured,  in  spite  of  the  warnings  of  the  frightened  Coreans,  and 
to  their  intense  admiration,  within  the  Japanese  lines,  and  had  a 
conference  with  Konishi,  Yoshitoshi,  and  Gensho.  The  Chinese 
agent  agreed  to  proceed  to  Peking,  and,  returning  to  Ping-an  after 
fifty  days,  to  report  the  approval  or  disapproval  of  his  government. 
To  this  Konishi  agreed,  and  there  was  a truce.  The  conditions  of 
peace,  insisted  on  by  Konishi,  were  that  the  Japanese  ancient  ter- 
ritory in  the  peninsula,  namely,  those  portions  covered  by  the  old 
states  of  Sliinra  and  Hiaksai,  should  be  delivered  over  to  Japan, 
to  be  held  as  vassal  provinces.  This  demand  virtually  claimed  all 
Corea  south  of  the  Ta-tong  River,  in  right  of  ancient  possession 
and  recent  conquest  and  occupation. 

Arriving  in  Peking,  Chin  Ikei  found  the  Chinese  army  nearly 
ready  to  march,  and,  as  their  government  disowned  his  right  to 
treat  with  the  Japanese,  nothing,  except  the  time  gained  for  the 
Chinese,  resulted  from  the  negotiations.  Meanwhile  Kato  Kiyo- 
masa,  with  his  troops,  had  overran  the  whole  extent  of  Ham- 
kiung,  the  longest  and  largest  province  of  Corea,  occupying  also 
parts  of  Kang- wen.  No  great  pitched  battle  in  force  was  fought, 
but  much  hard  fighting  took  place,  and  many  castles  were  taken 
after  bloody  sieges.  In  one  of  these,  the  two  royal  princes,  sent 
north  by  their  father  on  his  flight  from  Seoul,  and  many  men  of 
rank  were  captured.  Among  his  prisoners,  was  “ a young  gii’l  re- 
puted to  be  the  most  beautiful  in  the  whole  kingdom.”  In  the 
pursuit  of  the  fugitives  the  Japanese  were  often  led  into  wild  and 
lonely  regions  and  into  the  depths  of  trackless  mountains  and  for- 
ests, in  which  they  met,  not  only  human  foes,  but  faced  the  tiger 
disturbed  from  his  lair.  They  were  often  obliged  to  camp  in 
places  where  these  courageous  beasts  attacked  the  sentries  or  the 
sleeping  soldiers.  Kato  himself  slew  a tiger  with  his  lance,  after 
a desperate  struggle.  After  a hard  campaign,  the  main  body  of 
the  troops  fixed  their  camp  at  Am-pen,  near  Gensan,  but  closer  to 
the  southern  border  of  the  province.  Nabeshima’s  camp  was  in 
Kang-wen,  three  days’  journey  distant.  From  a point  on  the  sea- 
coast  near  by,  in  fair  weather,  the  island  cone  of  Dagelet  is  visible. 
To  the  question  of  Kato,  some  Corean  prisoners  falsely  answered  that 
this  was  Fujiyama — the  worshipped  mountain  of  the  home-land, 
and  “ the  thing  of  beauty  and  a joy  forever  ” to  the  Japanese  peo- 
ple. Immediately  the  Japanese  reverently  uncovered  their  heads 


THE  CAMPAIGN  IN  THE  NORTH. 


Ill 


and,  kneeling  on  the  strand,  gazed  long  and  lovingly  with  home- 
sick hearts — a scene  often  portrayed  in  Japanese  decorative  art. 

Thus  the  year  1592  drew  near  its  close  ; the  Japanese,  neces- 
sarily inactive,  and  the  spirit  of  patriotism  among  the  Coreans 
rising.  Collecting  local  volunteer  troops  and  forming  guerilla 
bands,  they  kept  the  Japanese  camps,  along  the  road  from  Fusan 
to  Ping-an,  constantly  vigilant.  They  ferreted  out  the  spies  who 
had  kept  the  Japanese  informed  of  what  was  going  on,  and 
promptly  cut  off  their  heads.  Isolated  from  all  communication, 
Konishi  remained  in  ignorance  of  the  immense  Chinese  army  that 
was  marching  against  him.  The  discovery,  by  the  Japanese,  of  the 
existence  of  the  regular  Chinese  troops  in  Corea,  was  wholly  a 
matter  of  accident.  According  to  Chinese  report,  the  commander 
of  the  Ming  army,  Li-yu-son  (Japanese,  Ri  Jo  Sho),  was  a valiant 
hero  fresh  from  mighty  victories  over  the  rising  Manchiu  tribes 
in  the  north.  The  march  of  his  host  of  60,000  men  through 
Liao  Tung  in  winter,  especially  over  the  mountain  passes,  was  a 
severe  one,  and  the  horses  are  said  to  have  sweated  blood.  Evi- 
dently the  expectation  of  the  leader  was  to  drive  out  the  inva- 
ders and  annex  the  country  to  China.  "When  the  Corean  moun- 
tains appeared,  as  they  reached  the  Yalu  River,  the  leader  cried 
out,  “ There  is  the  place  which  it  depends  on  our  valor  to  recover 
as  our  hereditary  possessions.”  On  the  sixth  day,  after  crossing 
the  frontier,  he  arrived  at  Sun-an.  It  was  then  near  the  last  of  Janu- 
ary, 1592,  and  the  New  Year  was  close  at  hand.  Word  was  sent 
to  Konishi  that  Chin  Ikei  had  arrived  and  was  ready  to  reopen 
negotiations,  with  a favorable  reply.  Konishi  promptly  despatched 
a captain,  with  a guard  of  twenty  men,  to  meet  Chin  Ikei  and  escort 
him  within  the  lines.  It  being  New  Year’s  Day,  Februaiy  2,  1593, 
the  guard  sallied  out  amid  the  rejoicings  of  their  comrades  who, 
tired  of  desolate  Cho-sen,  longed  for  peace  and  home.  The  treach- 
erous Chinamen  received  the  Japanese  with  apparent  cordiality, 
and  feasted  them  until  they  were  well  drunk.  Then  the  unsuspi- 
cious Japanese  were  set  upon  while  their  swords  were  undrawn  in 
their  scabbards.  All  were  killed  except  two  or  three.  Accord- 
ing to  another  account,  they  fell  into  an  ambuscade,  and  fought 
so  bravely  that  only  three  were  taken  alive.  From  the  survivors 
Konishi  first  learned  of  the  presence  of  the  Ming  army.  The  pre- 
text, afterward  given  by  the  lying  Chinaman,  was  that  the  inter- 
preters misunderstood  each  other,  and  began  a quarrel.  The 
gravity  of  the  situation  was  now  apparent.  A Chinese  army,  of 


112 


COREA. 


whose  numbers  the  Japanese  were  ignorant,  menaced  them  in 
front,  while  all  around  them  the  natives  were  gathering  in  num- 
bers and  in  courage  to  renew  the  struggle  for  their  homes  and 
country.  The  new  army  from  China  was  evidently  well  equipped, 
disciplined,  and  supplied,  while  the  Japanese  forces  were  far  in 
an  enemy’s  country,  distant  from  their  base  of  supplies,  and  with 
a desolate  territory  in  the  rear.  Under  this  gloomy  aspect  of 
affairs,  the  faces  of  the  soldiers  wore  a dispirited  air. 

Konishi’s  alternative  lay  between  the  risk  of  a battle  and  re- 
treat to  Kai-seng.  He  was  not  long  in  resolving  on  the  former 
course,  for,  in  six  days  afterward,  the  Ming  host,  gay  with  gleam- 
ing arms,  bright  trappings,  and  dragon-bordered  silk  banners, 
appeared  within  sight  of  the  city’s  towers.  Konishi  anxiously 
watched  their  approach,  having  posted  his  little  force  to  the  best 
advantage.  The  city  was  defended  on  the  west  by  a steep  moun- 
tainous ridge,  on  the  north  by  a hill,  and  on  the  south  by  a river. 
The  Japanese  occupying  the  rising  ground  to  the  north,  which 
they  had  fortified  by  earthworks  and  palisades. 

At  break  of  day,  on  February  10th,  the  allies  began  a furious 
assault  along  the  whole  line.  The  Japanese  at  first  drove  back  their 
besiegers  with  their  musketry  fire,  but  the  Chinese,  with  their 
scaling  ladders,  reached  the  inside  of  the  works,  where  their  num- 
bers told.  When  night  fell  on  the  second  day  of  the  siege,  all  the 
outworks  were  in  their  possession,  and  nearly  two  thousand  of  the 
Japanese  lay  dead.  The  citadel  seemed  now  an  easy  prize  to  the 
Corean  generals  ; but  the  Chinese  commander,  seeing  that  the 
Japanese  were  preparing  to  defend  it  to  the  last,  and  that  his  own 
men  were  exhausted,  gave  the  order  to  return  to  camp,  expecting 
to  renew  the  attack  next  morning. 

Konishi  had  despatched  a courier  to  Otomo,  the  Japanese  offi- 
cer in  command  at  Hozan,  a small  fortress  in  Whang-hai,  to  come 
to  his  aid.  So  far  from  obeying,  the  latter,  frightened  at  the 
exaggerated  reports  of  the  numbers  of  the  Chinese,  evacuated  his 
post  and  marched  back  to  Seoul.  Unable  to  obtain  succor  from 
the  other  garrisons,  and  having  lost  many  men  by  battle  and  dis- 
ease, while  many  more  were  disabled  by  wounds  and  sickness, 
Konishi  gave  orders  to  retreat.  One  of  his  bravest  captains  waB 
put  in  command  of  the  rear-guard,  and  the  castle  was  silently  de- 
serted at  midnight.  In  this  masterly  retreat,  little  was  left  behind 
but  corpses.  Crossing,  upon  the  ice,  the  river,  w'hich  was  then 
frozen  many  feet  in  thickness,  their  foes  were  soon  left  behind. 


THE  CAMPAIGN  IN  THE  NORTH. 


113 


Next  day  the  allied  army,  surprised  at  seeing  no  enemy  to  meet 
them,  entered  the  castle,  finding  neither  man  nor  spoil  of  any  kind. 
The  Coreans  wished  to  pursue  their  enemy,  but  the  Chinese  com- 
mander, not  only  forbade  it,  but  glad  of  a pretext  by  which  he 
could  shift  the  blame  on  some  other  person,  cashiered  the  Corean 
general  for  allowing  the  Japanese  to  escape  so  easily.  Konishi, 
without  stopping  at  Kai-seng,  was  thus  enabled  to  reach  Seoul, 
now  the  headquarters  of  all  the  invading  forces.  Fully  expecting 
the  early  advance  of  the  Chinese,  the  men  were  now  set  to  work 
in  fortifying  the  city. 

In  the  flush  of  success,  Li-yu-sung,  the  Ming  commander,  sent 
an  envoy  with  a haughty  summons  of  surrender  to  Kato  and  Na- 
beshima.  To  this  Kato  answered  in  a tone  of  defiance,  guarded 
his  noble  prisoners  more  vigilantly,  and  with  his  own  hand,  in  sight 
of  the  envoy,  put  the  beautiful  Corean  girl  to  death,  by  transfixing 
her,  with  a spear,  from  waist  to  shoulder,  while  bound  to  a tree. 
He  immediately  sent  reinforcements  to  the  castle  of  Kie-chiu,  then 
threatened  by  the  enemy. 

The  Corean  patriots,  who  organized  small  detachments  of 
troops,  began  to  attack  or  repel  the  invaders  in  several  places,  and 
even  to  lay  siege  to  castles  occupied  by  Japanese  wherever  they 
suspected  the  garrison  was  weak.  The  possession  of  a few  firearms 
and  even  rude  artillery  made  them  very  daring.  They  compelled 
the  evacuation  of  one  fortress  held  by  Kato’s  men  by  the  following 
means.  A Corean,  named  Richosun,  says  a Japanese  author,  in- 
vented bombs,  or  shin-ten-rai  (literally,  heaven-shaking  thunder), 
containing  poison.  Going  secretly  to  the  foot  of  the  castle,  he  dis- 
charged the  bombs  out  of  a cannon  into  the  castle.  As  soon  as  they 
fell  or  touched  anything  they  burst  and  emitted  poisonous  gas,  and 
every  one  within  reach  fell  dead.  The  first  of  these  balls  fell  into 
the  garden  of  the  castle,  and  the  Japanese  soldiers  did  not  know 
what  it  was.  They  gathered  around  to  examine  it,  and  while  doing 
so,  the  powder  in  the  ball  exploded.  The  report  shook  heaven  and 
earth.  The  ball  was  rent  into  a thousand  pieces,  which  scattered 
like  stars.  Every  man  that  was  hit  instantly  fell,  and  thus  more  than 
thirty  men  were  killed.  Even  those  who  were  not  struck  fell  down 
stunned,  and  the  soldiers  lost  their  courage.  Many  balls  were  after- 
ward thrown  in,  which  finally  compelled  the  evacuation  of  the  castle. 

From  the  above  account  it  seems  that  the  Coreans  actually  in- 
vented bombs  similar  to  the  modern  iron  shells.  They  may  have 
been  fired  from  a heavy  wooden  cannon,  a sort  of  howitzer,  made 
8 


114 


COREA. 


by  boring  out  a section  of  tree  trank  and  hooping  it  along  its 
whole  length  with  stout  bamboo.  Such  cannon  are  often  used  in 
Japan.  They  will  shoot  a ten  or  twenty  pound  rocket  or  case  of 
fireworks  many  hundred  feet  in  the  air.  The  Corean  most  proba- 
bly selected  a spot  so  distant  from  the  castle  that  a sortie  for  its 
capture  could  not  he  successfully  made.  Corean  gunpowder  is 
proverbially  slow  in  burning,  which  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the 
Japanese  had  time  to  gather  round  it.  The  bomb  was  most  proba- 
bly a thin  shell  of  iron,  loaded  only  with  gunpowder,  which,  like  the 
Chinese  mixture,  contains  an  excess  of  sulphur.  The  military  cus- 
toms of  the  Japanese  required  every  man  disabled  by  a wound  to 
commit  hara-kiri,  so  that  the  number  of  actual  deaths  must  have 
been  swelled  by  the  suicides  that  followed  wounds  inflicted  by  the 
iron  fragments.  The  Japanese  were  so  completely  demoralized 
that  they  evacuated  the  castle. 

Two  other  castles  at  Kinzan  and  Kishiu,  being  beleagured  by  the 
patriots,  Kato  started  to  succor  the  slender  garrisons.  The  Coreans, 
hearing  this,  redoubled  their  efforts  to  capture  them  before  Kato 
should  arrive.  They  had  so  far  succeeded  that  the  Japanese  officer 
in  the  citadel,  having  lost  nearly  all  his  men,  went  into  the  keep,  or 
fireproof  storehouse,  in  the  centre  of  the  castle,  and  opened  his 
bowels,  prefening  to  die  by  his  own  hands  rather  than  allow  a Corean 
the  satisfaction  of  killing  him.  Just  at  that  moment  the  black  rings 
of  Kato’s  banners  appeared  in  sight.  The  Coreans,  setting  the  castle 
on  lire,  and  giving  loud  yells  of  defiance  and  victory,  disappeared. 

Kato  and  Nabeshimahad  received  an  urgent  message  from  Seoul 
to  come  with  their  troops,  and  thus  unite  all  the  Japanese  forces 
in  a stand  against  the  Chinese.  Kato  disliked  exceedingly  to  obey 
this  order  because  he  knew  it  came  from  Konishi,  but  he  finally 
set  out  to  march  across  the  country.  Thorough  discipline  was 
maintained  on  the  march,  and  the  rivers  were  safely  crossed. 
Cutting  down  trees,  the  soldiers,  in  companies  of  five  or  ten,  hold- 
ing on  abreast  of  logs,  forded  or  floated  over  the  most  impetuous 
torrents,  while  the  cavalry  kept  the  Coreans  at  bay.  Though  an- 
noyed by  attacks  of  guerilla  parties  on  their  flanks,  the  Japanese 
succeeded  in  reaching  Seoul  without  serious  loss. 

By  the  retreat  of  the  Japanese  armies,  and  their  concentration 
in  Seoul,  the  four  northern  provinces,  comprising  half  the  king- 
dom, were  virtually  lost  to  them.  At  the  fall  of  Ping-an  the  war 
found  its  pivot,  for  the  Japanese  never  again  retrieved  their  for- 
tunes in  Cho-sen. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


THE  RETREAT  FROM  SEOUL. 

The  allies,  after  looking  well  to  their  commissariat,  began  their 
march  on  Seoul,  about  the  middle  of  February,  with  forces  which 
the  Japanese  believed  to  number  two  hundred  thousand  men.  The 
light  cavalry  formed  the  advance  guard.  The  main  body,  after 
floundering  through  the  muddy  roads,  arrived,  on  February  26th, 
about  forty  miles  northwest  of  Seoul. 

In  the  first  skirmish,  which  took  place  near  the  town  shortly 
afterward,  the  allies  drove  back  the  Japanese  advance  detachment 
with  heavy  loss.  Li-yo-sun,  the  commander-in-chief,  now  ordered 
the  army  to  move  against  the  capital. 

In  the  council  of  war,  held  by  the  Japanese  generals,  Ishida, 
who,  like  Konishi,  was  a Christian  in  faith,  advised  the  evacuation 
of  Seoul.  This,  of  course,  provoked  Kato,  who  rose  and  angrily 
said  : “It  is  a shame  for  us  to  give  up  the  capital  before  we  have 
seen  even  a single  banner  of  the  Ming  army.  The  Coreans  and 
our  people  at  home  will  call  us  cowards,  and  say  we  were  afraid  of 
the  Chinamen.”  Hot  words  then  passed  between  the  rival  generals, 
but  Otani  and  others  made  peace  between  them.  All  concluded 
that,  in  order  to  guard  against  treason,  the  Coreans  in  the  capital 
must  be  removed.  Thereupon,  large  portions  of  the  city  were  set 
on  fire,  and  houses,  gates,  bridges,  public  and  private  buildings, 
were  soon  a level  waste  of  ashes.  The  people,  old  and  young,  of 
both  sexes,  sick  and  well,  were  driven  out  at  the  point  of  the  lance. 
To  the  stern  necessities  of  war  were  added  the  needless  carnage 
of  massacre,  and  hundreds  of  harmless  natives  were  cruelly  mur- 
dered. Only  a few  lusty  men,  to  be  used  as  laborers  and  burden- 
bearers,  were  spared. 

Years  after,  the  memory  of  this  frightful  and  inhuman  slaugh- 
ter, burdening  the  conscience  of  many  a Japanese  soldier,  drove 
him  a penitent  suppliant  into  the  monasteries.  There,  exiled  from 
the  world,  with  shaven  head  and  priestly  robe,  he  spent  his  days 


116 


COREA. 


in  fasting,  vigils,  ancl  prayers  for  pardon,  seeking  to  obtain  Nir- 
vana with  the  Eternal  Buddha. 

Meanwhile  the  work  of  fortification  went  on.  The  advance 
guard  of  the  Chinese  host  were  now  within  a few  miles  of  the  city, 
and  daily  skirmishes  took  place.  The  younger  Japanese  officers 
clamored  to  lead  the  van  against  the  Chinese,  but  Kobayekawa, 
an  elderly  general,  was  allowed  to  arrange  the  order  of  battle,  and 
the  Japanese  army  marched  out  from  the  capital  to  the  attack  in 
three  divisions,  Kobayekawa  leading  the  third,  or  main  body  of  ten 
thousand  men,  the  others  having  only  three  thousand  each.  In  the 
battle  that  ensued  the  Japanese  were  at  first  unable  to  hold  their 
ground  against  the  overwhelming  forces  of  their  enemies.  The  Chi- 
nese and  Coreans  drove  back  their  first  and  second  divisions  with 
heavy  loss.  Then,  thinking  victory  certain,  they  began  a pursuit 
with  both  foot  soldiers  and  cavalry,  which  led  them  into  disorder  and 
exhausted  their  strength.  "When  well  wearied,  Kobayekawa,  having 
waited  till  they  were  too  far  distant  from  their  camp  to  receive 
reinforcements,  led  his  division  in  a charge  against  the  allies.  The 
battle  then  became  a hand-to-hand  fight  on  a gigantic  scale.  The 
Chinese  were  armed  mainly  with  swords,  which  were  short,  heavy, 
and  double-edged.  The  allies  had  a large  number  of  cavalry  en- 
gaged, but  the  ground  being  miry  from  the  heavy  rains,  they  were 
unable  to  form  or  to  charge  with  effect.  Their  advantage  in  other 
respects  was  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  length  of  the  Japan- 
ese swords,  the  strength  of  their  armor,  and  their  veteran  valor  and 
coolness.  Even  the  foot  soldiers  wielded  swords  having  blades 
usually  two,  but  sometimes  three  and  four,  feet  long. 

The  Japanese  have  ever  prided  themselves  upon  the  length, 
slenderness,  temper,  and  keen  edge  of  their  blades,  and  look  with 
unmeasured  contempt  upon  the  short  and  clumsy  weapons  of  the 
continental  Asiatics.  They  proudly  call  their  native  land  “ The 
country  ruled  by  a slender  sword.”  Marvellous  in  wonder  and 
voluminousness  are  their  legends,  literature,  and  exact  history 
concerning  ken  (two-edged,  short  falchion),  and  katana  (two-handed 
and  single-edged  sabre).  In  this  battle  it  was  the  sword  alone 
that  decided  the  issue,  though  firearms  lent  their  deadly  aid.  The 
long,  cross-bladed  spears  of  their  foot  soldiers  were  also  highly 
effective,  first,  in  warding  off  the  sabre  strokes  of  the  Chinese  cav- 
alry, and  then  unhorsing  them,  either  by  thrust  or  grapple.  One 
general  of  high  rank  was  pulled  oft’  his  steed  and  killed. 

The  Japanese  leaders  were  in  their  best  spirits,  as  well  as  in 


THE  RETREAT  FROM  SEOUL. 


117 


tlieir  finest  equipments.  One  was  especially  noticeable  by  his 
gilded  helmet  that  flashed  and  towered  conspicuously.  It  was 
probably  that  of  Kato,  whose  head-gear  was  usually  of  incredible 
height  and  dazzling  splendor. 

After  a long  struggle  and  frightful  slaughter,  the  allies  were 
beaten  back  in  confusion.  Ten  thousand  Chinese  and  Coreans, 
according  to  Japanese  accounts,  were  slaughtered  on  this  bloodiest 
day  and  severest  pitched  battle  of  the  first  invasion. 

The  Chinese  suffered  heavily  in  officers,  and  their  first  taste  of 
war  in  the  field  with  such  veterans  as  the  soldiers  of  Taiko  was 
discouraging  in  the  extreme.  Li-yo-sun  drew  off  his  forces  and 
soon  after  retired  to  Sunto.  Not  knowing  that  Kato  had  got  into 
Seoul,  and  fearing  an  attack  from  the  rear,  on  Ping-an,  he  drew 
oft’  his  main  body  to  that  city,  leaving  a garrison  at  Sunto.  Tired, 
disgusted,  and  scared,  the  redoubtable  Chinaman,  like  “ the  beaten 
soldier  that  fears  the  top  of  the  tall  grass,”  sent  a lying  report  to 
Peking,  exaggerating  the  numbers  of  the  Japanese,  and  asking  for 
release  from  command,  on  the  usual  Oriental  plea  of  poor  health. 
As  for  the  Japanese,  they  had  lost  so  heavily  in  killed,  that  they 
were  unable  to  follow  up  the  victory,  if  victory  it  may  be  called. 
A small  force,  however,  pressed  forward  and  occupied  Kai-jo, 
while  the  main  body  prepared  to  pass  a miserable  winter  in  the 
desolate  capital. 

The  Corean  stronghold  of  An-am  was  also  assaulted.  This  cas- 
tle was  built  on  a precipitous  steep,  having  but  one  gate  and  flank 
capable  of  access,  and  that  being  a narrow,  almost  perpendicular, 
cutting  through  the  rocks.  The  attacking  force  entered  the 
gloomy  valley  shut  in  from  light  by  the  luxuriant  forest,  which 
darkened  the  path  even  in  the  daytime.  At  the  tops,  and  on  the 
ledges  of  the  rocks  beetling  over  the  entrance-way,  the  Corean 
archers  took  up  advantageous  positions,  while  others  of  the  garri- 
son, with  huge  masses  of  rock  and  timber  piled  near  the  ledge, 
stood  ready  to  hurl  these  upon  the  invaders. 

Awaiting  in  silence  the  approach  of  their  enemies,  they  soon 
saw  the  Japanese  fan-standards  and  paper-strip  banners  approach, 
when  these  were  directly  beneath  them,  every  bow  twanged,  and  a 
shower  of  arrows  rained  upon  the  invaders,  while  volleys  of  stones 
fell  into  their  ranks,  crashing  heads  and  helmets  together.  The 
besiegers  were  compelled  to  draw  off  and  arrange  a new  attack  ; 
but  in  the  night  the  garrison  withdrew.  Next  day  the  Japanese  en- 
tered, garrisoned  the  castle,  and  decorated  it  with  their  streamers. 


118 


COREA. 


The  long-continued  abandonment  of  the  soil,  owing  to  the  war 
and  the  presence  of  three  large  armies,  bore  their  natural  fruits, 
and  turned  fertile  Corea  into  a land  of  starvation.  Famine  began 
its  ravages  of  death  on  friend  and  foe  alike.  The  peasants  peti- 
tioned their  government  for  food,  but  none  was  to  be  had.  Thou- 
sands of  the  poor  people  died  of  starvation.  The  fathers  suffered 
in  camp,  while  the  dead  mothers  lay  unburied  in  the  houses,  and 
the  children,  tortured  with  hunger,  cried  for  food.  One  day  a 
captain  in  the  Chinese  army  found,  by  the  roadside,  an  emaciated 
infant  vainly  seeking  for  nourishment  from  the  cold  and  rigid 
breast  of  its  dead  mother.  Touched  with  compassion,  the  warrior 
took  the  child  and  reared  him  to  manhood  under  his  own  care. 

Some  rice  was  distributed  to  the  wretched  people  from  the 
government  store-houses  in  certain  places,  but  still  the  groans  and 
cries  of  the  starving  filled  the  air.  Pestilence  entered  the  Japan- 
ese camp,  and  thousands  of  the  home-sick  soldiers  died  inglori- 
ously.  The  long  winter  rains  made  the  living  despondent  and 
gloomy  enough  to  commit  hara-kiri,  while  the  state  of  the  roads 
and  the  dashing  courage  of  the  guerillas,  who  pushed  their  raids 
to  the  very  gates  of  the  camps,  made  foraging  an  unpopular  duty 
among  the  men.  In  such  discomfort,  winter  wore  away,  and  tardy 
spring  approached.  In  this  state  of  a flairs  the  Japanese  were 
willing  to  listen,  and  the  allies  ready  to  offer,  terms  of  peace.  A 
Corean  soldier,  named  Rijunchin,  by  permission  of  his  superior 
officer,  had  penetrated  into  Seoul  to  visit  the  two  captive  princes. 
On  his  return  to  the  camp,  he  stated  that  the  Japanese  generals 
were  very  homesick  and  heartily  tired  of  the  war.  At  the  same 
time,  a letter  was  received  from  Konishi,  stating  his  readiness  to 
receive  terms  of  peace.  Chin  Ikei  was  again  chosen  to  negotiate. 
Reaching  the  Japanese  lines  at  Kai-jo,  he  held  an  interview  with 
Konishi,  and  the  following  points  of  agreement  were  made  : 

1.  Peace  between  the  three  countries. 

2.  Japan  to  remain  in  possession  of  the  three  southern  prov- 
inces of  Cho-sen. 

3.  Corea  to  send  tribute  to  Japan  as  heretofore. 

4.  Hideyoslii  to  be  recognized  as  King  of  Corea.  The  three 
other  articles  drawn  up  were  not  made  public,  but  the  acknowl- 
edgment of  Taiko  as  the  equal  of  the  Emperor  of  China  was  evi- 
dently one  of  them.  The  Japanese,  on  their  part,  were  to  return 
the  two  captive  princes,  withdraw  all  their  armies  to  Fusan,  and 
evacuate  the  country  when  the  stipulations  were  canned  out. 


THE  RETREAT  FROM  SEOUL. 


119 


Both  parties  were  weary  of  the  war.  The  Ming  commander 
had  requested  to  be  relieved  of  his  command  and  to  return  to 
China,  while  the  three  old  gentlemen,  who  were  military  advisers 
in  the  Japanese  camp,  yearning  for  the  pleasures  of  Kioto,  wrote 
to  Taiko,  asking  leave  to  come  home,  telling  him  the  object  of 
his  ambition  was  on  the  eve  of  attainment,  and  that  he  was  to 
receive  investiture  from  the  Chinese  emperor,  and  recognition  as 
an  equal. 

Scholarship  and  literature  were  not  at  a very  high  premium  at 
that  time  among  the  Japanese  military  men.  The  martial  virtues 
and  accomplishments  occupied  the  time  and  thoughts  of  the  war- 
riors to  the  exclusion  of  book  learning  and  skill  at  words.  The 
sword  for  the  soldier,  and  the  pen  for  the  priest,  was  the  rule. 
The  bluff  warrior  in  armor  looked  with  contempt,  not  unmingled 
with  awe,  upon  the  shaven-pated  man  of  ink  and  brush.  One  of 
the  bonzes  from  the  monastery  was  usually  of  necessity  attached  to 
the  service  of  each  commander.  It  was  by  reason  of  the  ignorance, 
as  well  as  the  vanity,  of  the  illiterate  Japanese  generals  that  such  a 
mistake,  in  supposing  that  Taiko  was  to  be  recognized  as  equal  to 
the  Emperor  of  China,  was  rendered  possible.  The  wily  Chin  Ikei, 
who  drove  a lucrative  trade  as  negotiator,  hoodwinked  Konishi,  who 
would  not  have  been  thus  outwitted  if  he  had  had  a bonze  present 
to  inspect  the  writing.  Being  a Christian,  however,  he  was  on  bad 
terms  with  the  bonzes. 

In  both  camps  there  were  those  who  bitterly  opposed  any 
peace  short  of  that  which  the  sword  decided.  The  Corean  gen- 
erals chafed  at  the  time  wasted  in  parley,  and  -wished  to  march  on 
the  Japanese  at  once,  whose  ranks  they  knew  were  decimated 
with  sickness,  and  their  spiiit  and  discipline  relaxed  under  the 
idea  of  speedy  return  home.  An  epidemic  had  also  broken  out 
among  their  horses,  probably  owing  to  scant  provender.  Thus 
crippled  and  demoralized,  victory  would  certainly  follow  a well- 
planned  attack  in  force.  Within  the  camp  of  the  invaders  Achil- 
les and  Agamemnon  were  as  far  as  ever  from  harmony.  Kato 
sullenly  refused  to  entertain  the  idea  of  peace,  partly  because 
Konishi  proposed  it,  but  mainly  because,  if  the  two  princes  were 
given  up,  his  achievements  would  be  brought  to  naught,  and 
all  the  glory  of  the  war  would  redound  to  his  rival.  Only  af- 
ter the  earnest  representation  by  his  friends  of  the  empty  gran- 
aries, and  the  danger  of  impending  starvation,  the  great  sickness 
among  the  troops,  and  the  fearful  loss  of  horses,  was  he  in- 


120 


COREA. 


duced  to  agree  with  the  other  commanders  that  Seoul  should  be 
evacuated. 

Meanwhile,  the  allies  were  advancing  toward  the  capital. 

On  May  22,  1593,  the  Japanese,  with  due  precautions,  evacua- 
ted the  city,  and  the  vanguard  of  the  Chinese  army  entered  on  the 
same  day.  The  retreat  of  the  Japanese  was  effected  in  good 
order,  and,  to  guard  against  treachery,  they  bivouacked  in  the 
open  air,  avoiding  sleeping  in  the  houses  or  villages,  and  rigidly 
kept  up  the  vigilance  of  their  sentinels  and  the  discipline  of  the 
divisions.  In  this  way  the  various  detachments  of  the  army  safely 
reached  Fusan,  Tong-nai,  Kinka,  and  other  places  near  the  coast. 
Here,  after  fortifying  their  camps,  they  rested  for  a space  from  the 
alarms  of  war,  almost  within  sight  of  their  native  land.  The  allies 
later  on  marched  southward  and  went  into  camp  a few  leagues  to 
the  northward.  Since  crossing  the  Yalu  River,  the  Chinese  had 
lost  by  the  sword  and  disease  twenty  thousand  men. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


CESPEDES,  THE  CHRISTIAN  CHAPLAIN. 

The  aspect  of  affairs  had  now  changed  from  that  of  a trium- 
phal march  through  Corea  into  China  and  to  Peking,  to  long  and 
tedious  camp  life,  with  uncertain  fortunes  in  the  field,  which  prom- 
ised a long  stay  in  the  peninsula.  Konishi  had  now  breathing  time 
and  space  for  reflection.  Being  an  ardent  Christian — after  the 
faith  and  practice  of  the  Portuguese  Jesuits — he  wished  for  him- 
self and  his  fellow-believers  the  presence  and  ministrations  of  one 
of  the  European  friars  to  act  as  chaplain.  He  therefore  sent,  prob- 
ably when  at  or  near  Fusan,  a message  to  the  superior  of  the 
Mission  in  Japan,  asking  for  a priest. 

Toward  the  end  of  1593,  the  Vice-Provencal  of  the  Company  of 
the  Jesuits  despatched  Father  Gregorio  de  Cespecles  and  a Japan- 
ese convert  named  “Foucan  Eion  ” to  the  army  in  Cho-sen.  They 
left  Japan  and  spent  the  winter  in  Tsushima,  the  domain  of  Yoslii- 
toshi,  one  of  the  Christian  lords  then  in  the  field.  Early  in  the 
spring  of  1594  they  reached  Corea,  arriving  at  Camp  Comangai  (most 
probably  a name  given  by  the  Japanese  after  the  famous  hero  Ku- 
magaye),  at  which  Konishi  made  his  headquarters.  The  two  holy 
men  immediately  began  their  labors  among  the  Japanese  armies. 
They  went  from  castle  to  castle,  and  from  camp  to  camp,  preach- 
ing to  the  pagan  soldiers,  and  administering  the  rite  of  baptism 
to  all  who  professed  the  faith,  or  signed  themselves  with  the  cross. 
They  administered  the  sacraments  to  the  Christian  Japanese,  com- 
forted and  prayed  with  the  sick,  reformed  abuses,  assisted  the 
wounded,  and  shrived  the  dying.  New  converts  were  made  and 
old  ones  strengthened.  Dying  in  a foreign  land,  of  fever  or  of 
wounds,  the  soul  of  the  Japanese  man-at-arms  was  comforted  with 
words  of  hope  from  the  lips  of  the  foreign  priest.  Held  before  his 
glazing  eyes  gleamed  the  crucifix,  on  which  appeared  the  image  of 
the  world’s  Redeemer.  The  home-sick  warrior,  pining  for  wife 
and  babe,  was  told  of  the  “ House  not  made  with  hands.” 


122 


COREA. 


The  two  brethren  seem  to  have  been  very  popular  among  the 
Japanese  soldiers.  Perhaps  they  already  dreamed  of  planting  the 
faith  in  Corea,  when,  suddenly,  their  work  was  arrested  at  its  height 
by  Kato,  whose  jealousy  of  Konishi  was  only  equalled  by  his  fanati- 
cal zeal  for  the  Buddhist  faith.  Being  in  Japan  he  denounced  the 
foreign  priest  to  Taiko,  declaring  that  these  zealous  endeavors  to 
propagate  the  Christian  faith  only  concealed  a vast  conspiracy 
against  himself  and  the  power  of  the  mikado.  At  this  time  Taiko 
was  dealing  with  the  Jesuits  in  Japan,  and  endeavoring  to  rid  the 
country  of  their  presence  by  shipping  them  off  to  China.  He 
fully  believed  that  they  were  political  as  well  as  religious  emissa- 
ries, and  that  their  aim  was  at  temporal  power.  These  suspicions, 
as  every  student  of  Japan  knows,  were  more  than  well  founded. 

Besides  accusing  Cespedes,  Kato  insinuated  that  Konishi  him- 
self was  leading  the  conspiracy.  The  cry  of  cho-teki  (rebel,  or 
enemy  of  the  mikado)  in  Japan  is  enough  to  blacken  the  character 
of  the  bravest  man  and  greatest  favorite.  Treason  against  the  mi- 
kado being  the  supreme  crime,  Konishi  found  it  necessary  to 
return  to  Kioto,  present  himself  before  Taiko,  and  cleanse  his  repu- 
tation even  from  suspicion.  This  the  lull  in  the  active  operations, 
occasioned  by  the  negotiations  of  Chin  Ikei,  enabled  him  to  do. 

Immediately  sending  back  the  priest,  he  shortly  afterward 
crossed  the  straits,  and,  meeting  Taiko,  succeeded  in  fully  ingrati- 
ating himself  and  allaying  all  suspicion. 

The  wife  of  Konishi  had  also  embraced  the  Christian  faith,  her 
baptized  name  being  Marie.  To  her,  while  in  camp,  he  had  sent 
two  Corean  lads,  both  of  whom  were  of  rank  and  gentle  blood,  the 
elder  being  called  in  the  letters  of  the  Jesuits  “ secretary  to  the 
Corean  king.”  He  was  the  son  of  a brave  captain  in  the  army, 
and  was  thirteen  years  old.  The  lady,  Marie,  touched  by  their 
misfortune,  kept  the  younger  to  be  educated  in  the  faith  under 
her  own  direction,  and  sent  the  elder  to  the  Jesuit  seminary  in 
Kioto.  Of  this  young  man’s  career  we  catch  some  glimpses  from 
the  letters  of  the  missionaries.  At  the  college  he  was  a favorite, 
by  reason  of  his  good  character,  gentle  manners,  and  fine  mind. 
Professing  the  faith,  he  was  baptized  in  1603,  taking  the  name  of 
Vincent.  He  began  his  religious  work  by  instructing  and  cate- 
chising Japanese  and  his  numerous  fellow  Coreans  at  Nagasaki. 
When  about  thirty-three  years  old,  the  Jesuits,  wishing  to  estab- 
lish a mission  in  Corea,  proposed  to  send  him  to  his  native  land  as 
missionary  ; but  not  being  able,  on  account  of  the  persecution 


CESPEDES,  THE  CHRISTIAN  CHAPLAIN. 


123 


then  raging  in  Japan,  he  was  chosen  by  the  Father  Provencal  to 
go  to  Peking,  communicate  with  the  Jesuits  there,  and  enter  Corea 
from  China.  At  Peking  he  remained  four-  years,  being  unable  to 
enter  his  own  country  by  reason  of  the  Manchius,  who  then  held 
control  of  the  northern  provinces  of  Manchuria  and  were  advancing 
on  Peking,  to  set  on  the  throne  that  family  which  is  still  the  ruling 
dynasty  of  the  Middle  Kingdom.  Vincent  was  recalled  to  Japan 
in  1620,  where,  in  the  persecutions  under  Iyemitsii,  the  third  To- 
kugawa  sho-gun,  he  fell  a victim  to  his  fidelity,  and  was  martyr- 
ized in  1625,  at  the  age  of  about  forty-four. 

Warned  of  the  dangers  of  patronizing  the  now  proscribed  relig- 
ion, there  was  no  farther  return  of  zeal  on  Konishi’s  part,  or  that 
of  the  other  Christian  princes,  and  no  farther  opportunity  was 
given  to  plant  the  seeds  of  the  faith  in  the  desolated  land. 

Of  the  large  numbers  of  Corean  prisoners  sent  over  to  Japan, 
from  time  to  time,  many  of  those  living  in  the  places  occupied  by 
the  missionaries  became  Christians.  Many  more  were  sold  as 
slaves  to  the  Portuguese.  In  Nagasaki,  of  the  three  hundred  or 
more  living  there,  most  of  them  were  converted  and  baptized. 
They  easily  learned  the  Japanese  language  so  as  to  need  no  inter 
preter  at  the  confessional — a fact  which  goes  to  prove  the  close 
affinity  of  the  two  languages. 

Others,  of  gentle  blood  and  scholarly  attainments,  rose  to  posi- 
tions of  honor  and  eminence  under  the  government,  or  in  the 
households  of  the  daimius.  Many  Corean  lads  were  adopted  by 
the  returned  soldiers  or  kept  as  servants.  When  the  bloody  per- 
secutions broke  out,  by  which  many  thousand  Japanese  found 
death  in  the  hundred  forms  of  torture  which  hate  and  malice  in- 
vented, the  Corean  converts  remained  steadfast  to  their  new-found 
faith,  and  suffered  martyrdom  with  fortitude  equal  to  that  of  their 
Japanese  brethren.  But,  by  the  army  in  Corea,  or  by  Cespedes, 
no  seed  of  Christianity  was  planted  or  trace  of  it  left,  and  its  in- 
troduction was  postponed  by  Providence  until  two  centuries  later 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


DIPLOMACY  AT  KIOTO  AND  PEKING. 

The  Chinese  ambassadors,  with  whom  was  Chin  Ikei,  set  sail 
from  Fusan,  and  reached  Nagoya,  in  Hizen,  on  June  22d.  Taiko 
received  them  in  person,  and  entertained  them  in  magnificent 
style.  His  lords  imitated  the  august  example  set  them,  and  both 
presents  and  attentions  were  showered  upon  the  guests.  Among 
other  entertainments  in  their  honor  was  a naval  review,  in  which 
hundreds  of  ships,  decorated  with  the  heraldry  of  feudalism,  were 
ranged  in  line.  The  boats  moved  in  procession  ; the  men,  standing 
up  as  they  worked  the  sculls,  sang  in  measured  chorus.  The 
sheaves  of  glittering  weapons,  spears,  and  halberds  arranged  at 
their  bows,  were  inlaid  with  gold  and  pearl.  The  cabins  were 
arranged  witli  looped  brocades  and  striped  canvas,  with  huge 
crests  and  imperial  chrysanthemums  of  colossal  size.  The  am- 
bassadors were  delighted,  both  with  the  lovely  scenery  and  the 
attentions  paid  them,  and  so  remained  until  August. 

Little,  however,  came  of  this  mission.  Taiko  sent  orders  to 
Kato  to  release  the  Corean  princes  and  nobles ; and  Chin  Ikei, 
who  usually  went  off  like  a clumsy  blunderbuss,  at  half-cock,  hied 
back  to  Clio-sen  to  tell  the  news  and  get  the  credit  of  having  se- 
cured this  concession.  The  Coreans  were  made  to  bear  the  blame 
of  the  war,  and  the  envoys  of  China,  in  good  humor,  returned  to 
Peking  in  company  with  a Japanese  ambassador. 

Yet  Taiko,  though  willing  to  be  at  peace  with  China,  did  not 
intend  to  spare  unhappy  Cho-sen.  To  soothe  the  spirit  of  Kato, 
the  order  was  given  to  capture  the  castle  of  Chin-chiu,  forty  miles 
west  of  Fusan,  which  had  not  yet  been  taken  by  the  Japanese, 
though  once  before  invested. 

Alarmed  at  the  movements  of  the  invaders,  the  Coreans  tried 
to  revictual  and  garrison  the  devoted  fortress,  and  even  to  attack 
the  enemy  on  the  way.  Unable,  however,  to  make  a stand  against 
their  foes,  they  were  routed  with  frightful  carnage.  Kato  led 


DIPLOMACY  AT  KIOTO  AND  PEKING. 


125 


the  besieging  force,  eager  to  make  speedy  capture  so  as  to  irritate 
the  Coreans  and  prevent  the  peace  he  feared. 

He  invested  the  castle  which  the  Coreans  had  not  been  able  to 
reinforce,  but  the  vigorous  resistance  of  the  garrison,  who  threw 
stones  and  timber  upon  the  heads  of  his  assaulting  parties,  drove 
him  to  the  invention  of  Kame-no-koslia,  or  tortoise-shell  wagons, 
which  imitated  the  defensive  armor  of  that  animal.  Collecting 
together  several  hundred  green  hides,  and  dry-hardening  them  in 
the  fire,  he  covered  four  heavily  built  and  slant-roofed  wagona 
with  them.  These  vehicles,  proof  against  fire,  missiles,  or  a crush- 
ing weight,  and  filled  with  soldiers,  were  pushed  forward  to  the 
foot  of  the  walls.  While  the  matchlock  men  in  the  lines  engaged 
those  fighting  on  the  ramparts,  the  soldiers,  under  the  projecting 
sheds  of  the  tortoise  wagons,  that  jutted  against  the  walls,  began 
to  dig  under  the  foundations.  These  being  undermined,  the  stones 
were  pried  out,  and  soon  fell  in  sufficient  number  to  cause  a 
breach.  Into  this  fresh  soldiers  rushed  and  quickly  stormed  the 
castle.  The  slaughter  inside  was  fearful. 

The  news  of  the  fall  of  this  most  important  fortress  fell  like  a 
clap  of  thunder  in  Peking,  and  upon  the  Corean  king,  who  was  pre- 
paring to  go  back  to  Seoul.  The  Chinese  government  appointed 
fresh  commissioners  of  war,  and  ordered  the  formation  of  a new 
and  larger  army. 

The  immediate  advance  of  the  invaders  on  the  capital  was  ex- 
pected, but  Kato,  having  obeyed  Taiko’s  orders,  left  a garrison  in 
the  castle  and  fell  back  on  Fusan. 

The  Chinese  general,  upbraiding  Chin  Ikei  for  his  insincerity, 
sent  him  to  Konishi  again.  Their  interview  was  taken  up  mainly 
with  mutual  charges  of  bad  faith.  Chin  Ikei,  returning,  tried  to 
persuade  the  Chinese  commander  to  evacuate  Corea,  or,  at  least, 
retire  to  the  frontier.  Though  he  refused,  being  still  under  orders 
to  fight,  the  Chinese  army  moved  back  from  Seoul  toward  Man- 
churia, while  Konishi,  on  his  own  responsibility,  despatched  a letter 
to  the  Chinese  emperor.  Large  detachments  of  the  Japanese 
army  actually  embarked  at  Fusan,  and  returned  to  Japan.  In  the 
lull  of  hostilities,  negotiations  were  carried  on  at  Peking  and 
Kioto,  as  well  as  between  the  hostile  camps.  The  pen  took  the 
place  of  the  matchlock,  and  the  ink-stone  furnished  the  ammuni- 
tion. 

A son  was  bom  to  Taiko,  and  named  Hideyori.  A great  pag- 
eant, in  honor  of  the  infant,  was  given  at  the  newly  built  and 


126 


COREA. 


splendid  castle  of  Fushimi,  near  Kioto,  which  was  graced  by  a 
large  number  of  the  commanders  and  veterans  of  Corea,  who  had 
returned  home  on  furlough,  while  negotiations  were  pending.  The 
result  of  the  Japanese  mission  to  Peking  was  the  despatch  of  an 
ambassador  extraordinary,  named  Rishosei,  with  one  of  lesser 
rank,  to  Japan,  by  way  of  Fusan. 

On  his  arrival,  he  requested  to  see  Konishi,  who,  however, 
evaded  him,  excusing  himself  on  the  plea  of  expecting  to  hear 
from  Taiko,  after  which  he  promised  to  hold  au  interview.  Ko- 
nishi then  departed  for  Japan,  taking  Chin  Ikei  with  him.  On 
his  return  he  still  avoided  the  Chinese  envoy,  for  he  had  no  defin- 
ite orders,  and  the  other  generals  refused  to  act  without  direct 
word  from  their  master  in  Kioto.  Meanwhile  Chin  Ikei,  consumed 
with  jealousy,  and  angry  at  the  Peking  mandarins  for  ignoring 
him  and  withholding  official  recognition  and  honors,  planned  re- 
venge against  Rishosei  ; for  Chin  Ikei  believed  himself  to  have 
done  great  things  for  Cho-sen  and  China,  and  yet  he  had  received 
neither  thanks,  pay,  nor  promotion  for  his  toils,  while  Rishosei, 
though  a young  man,  with  no  experience,  was  honored  with  high 
office  solely  on  account  of  being  of  rank  and  in  official  favor  at 
Peking.  Evidently  with  the  intent  of  injuring  Rishosei,  Chin  Ikei 
gave  out  that  Taiko  did  not  wish  to  be  made  King  of  Cho-sen, 
but  had  sent  an  envoy  to  China  merely  to  have  a high  ambassador 
of  China  come  to  Japan,  that  he  might  insult  or  rather  return  the 
insult  of  the  sovereign  of  China,  in  the  person  of  his  envoy,  by 
making  him  a prisoner  or  putting  him  to  death.  Konishi  and 
Chin  Ikei  again  crossed  to  Japan  to  arrange  for  the  reception  of 
the  Chinese  envoys. 

The  reports  started  by  Chin  Ikei,  coming  to  the  ears  of  Risho- 
sei, so  frightened  him  that  he  fled  in  disguise  from  Fusan,  and 
absconded  to  China.  His  colleague  denounced  him  as  a coward, 
and  declaring  that  the  Chinese  government  desired  only  “ peace 
with  honor,”  sailed  with  his  retinue  and  two  Corean  officers  to 
Japan.  “And  Satan  [Chin  Ikei],  came  also  among  them.”  All 
landed  safely  at  Sakai,  near  Ozaka,  October  8,  1596. 

Audience  was  duly  given  with  pomp  and  grandeur  in  the  gor- 
geous castle  at  Fushimi,  on  October  24th.  The  ambassador 
brought  the  imperial  letter,  the  patent  of  rank,  a golden  seal,  a 
crown,  and  silk-embroidered  robes  of  state.  At  a banquet,  given 
next  day,  these  robes  were  worn  by  Taiko  and  his  officers. 

Formalities  over,  the  Ming  emperor’s  letter  was  delivered  to 


DIPLOMACY  AT  KIOTO  AND  PEKING. 


127 


Taiko,  who  at  once  placed  it  in  the  hands  of  three  of  the  most 
learned  priests,  experts  in  the  Chinese  language,  and  ordered  them 
to  translate  its  contents  literally. 

To  Konishi,  then  at  Kioto,  came  misgivings  of  his  abilities  as  a 
diplomatist.  Visiting  the  bonzes,  he  earnestly  begged  them  to 
soften  into  polite  phrase  anything  in  the  letter  that  might  irritate 
Taiko.  But  the  priests  were  inflexibly  honest,  and  rendered  the 
text  of  the  letter  into  the  exact  Japanese  equivalent.  In  it  the 
patent  of  nobility  first  granted  to  the  Ashikaga  sho-gun  (1403- 
1425)  was  referred  to;  and  the  gist  of  this  last  imperial  letter 
was : “We,  the  Emperor  of  China,  appoint  you,  Taiko,  to  be  the 
King  of  Japan”  (Nippon  O).  In  other  words,  the  mighty  Kuam- 
baku  of  Japan  wras  insulted  by  being  treated  no  better  than  one 
of  the  Ashikaga  generals  ! 

This  was  the  mouse  that  was  born  from  so  great  a mountain 
of  diplomacy.  The  rage  of  Taiko  was  so  great  that,  with  his  own 
hands,  he  would  have  slain  Konishi,  had  not  the  bonzes  plead  for 
his  life,  claiming  that  the  responsibility  of  the  negotiations  rested 
upon  three  other  prominent  persons.  As  usual,  the  “false-hearted 
Coreans  ” were  made  to  bear  the  odium  of  the  misunderstanding. 

The  Chinese  embassy,  dismissed  in  disgrace,  returned  in  Janu- 
ary, 1596,  and  made  known  their  humiliation  at  Peking  ; while 
the  King  of  Corea,  who  had  been  living  in  Seoul  during  the  ne- 
gotiations, appealed  at  once  for  speedy  aid  against  the  impending 
invasion.  Hideyoshi  again  applied  himself  with  renewed  vigor  to 
raising  and  drilling  a new  army,  and  obtaining  ships  and  sup- 
plies. A grand  review  of  the  forces  of  invasion,  consisting  of  one 
hundred  and  sixty-three  thousand  horse  and  foot  soldiers,  was  held 
under  his  inspection.  Kuroda,  Nagamasa,  and  other  generals, 
with  then-  divisions,  sailed  away  for  Fusan,  January  7,  1597,  and 
joined  the  army  under  Konishi  and  Kato. 

The  new  levies  from  China,  which  had  been  waiting  under 
arms,  crossed  the  Yalu  and  entered  from  the  west  at  about  the 
same  time.  Marching  down  through  Ping-an  and  Seoul,  a divi- 
sion of  ten  thousand  garrisoned  the  castle  of  Nan-on,  in  Chulla. 
The  Coreans,  meanwhile,  fitted  out  a fleet,  under  the  command  of 
Genkai,  expecting  a second  victory  on  the  water. 

An  extinguisher  was  put  on  Chin  Ikei,  who  was  suspected  of 
being  in  the  pay  of  Konishi.  Genkai,  a Chinese  captain,  had  long 
believed  him  to  be  a dangerous  busybody,  without  any  real  powers 
from  the  Peking  government,  but  only  used  by  them  as  a decoy 


128 


COREA. 


duck,  while,  in  reality,  he  was  in  the  pay  of  the  Japanese,  and  the 
chief  hinderance  to  the  success  of  the  allied  arms.  On  the  other 
hand,  this  volunteer  politician,  weary  and  disappointed  at  not  re- 
ceiving from  China  the  high  post  and  honors  which  his  ambition 
coveted,  was  in  a strait.  Taiko  urged  him  to  secure  from  China 
the  claim  of  Japan  to  the  southern  half  of  Corea.  China,  on  the 
contrary,  ordered  him  to  induce  the  Japanese  generals  to  leave 
the  country.  Thus  situated,  Chin  Ikei  knew  not  what  to  do.  He 
sent  a message,  through  a priest,  to  Kato,  urging  him  to  make 
peace  or  else  meet  an  army  of  one  hundred  thousand  Chinamen. 
The  laconic  reply  of  the  Japanese  wras  : “ I am  ready  to  fight.  Let 
them  come.” 

Bluffed  in  his  last  move,  and  aware  of  the  plots  of  Genkai,  his 
enemy,  Chin  Ikei,  at  his  wits’  end,  resolved  to  escape  to  Konishi’s 
camp.  The  spies  of  Genkai  immediately  reported  the  fact  to  their 
master,  who  lay  in  wait  for  him.  Suddenly  confronting  his  vic- 
tim, they  demanded  his  errand.  “ I am  going  to  treat  with  Kato, 
the  Japanese  general ; I shall  be  back  in  one  month,”  answered 
Chin  Ikei.  He  was  seized  and,  on  being  led  back,  was  thrown 
into  prison.  A searching  party  was  then  despatched  at  once  to 
his  house.  There  they  found  gold,  treasure,  and  jewels  “ moun- 
tain high,”  and  his  wife  living  in  luxury.  Believing  all  these  to 
have  been  purchased  by  Japanese  gold,  and  the  fruits  of  bribery, 
the  Chinese  confiscated  the  spoil  and  imprisoned  the  traitor’s 
family. 

This  ended  all  further  negotiations  until  the  end  of  the  war. 
Henceforth,  on  land  and  water,  by  the  veterans  of  both  armies, 
with  fresh  levies,  both  of  allies  and  invaders,  the  issue  was  tried 
by  sword  and  siege. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


THE  SECOND  INVASION. 

The  plan  of  the  second  invasion  was  to  land  all  the  Japanese 
forces  at  Fusan,  and  then  to  divide  them  into  three  columns, 
which  were  to  advance  by  the  south  to  Nan-on  castle  in  Chulla, 
and  by  two  roads,  northward  and  westward,  to  the  capital.  As 
before,  Konishi  and  Kato  Kiyomasa  were  the  two  field  command- 
ers, while  Hideaki,  a noble  lad,  sixteen  years  old,  was  the  nomi- 
nal commander-in-chief. 

The  Coreans  had  made  preparations  to  fight  the  Japanese  at 
sea  as  well  as  on  land.  Their  fleet  consisted  of  about  two  hundred 
vessels  of  heavy  build,  for  butting  and  ramming,  as  well  as  for  ac- 
commodating a maximum  of  fighting  men.  They  were  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  or  three  hundred  feet  in  length,  with  huge  sterns,  hav- 
ing enormous  rudders,  the  tillers  of  which  were  worked  by  eight 
men.  Tlieir  high,  flat  prows  were  hideously  carved  and  painted  to 
represent  the  face  and  open  jaws  of  a dragon,  or  demon,  ready  to 
devour.  Stout  spars  or  knotted  logs,  set  upright  along  the  gunwale, 
protected  the  men  who  worked  the  catapults,  and  heavily  built 
roofed  cabins  sheltered  the  soldiers  and  gave  the  archers  a vantage 
ground.  The  rowers  sat  amidships,  between  the  cabins  and  the 
gunwales,  or  rather  over  on  these  latter,  in  casements  made  of 
stout  timber.  The  catapults  were  on  deck,  between  the  bows. 
They  were  twenty-four  feet  long,  made  of  tree-trunks  a yard  in 
circumference.  Immense  bows,  drawn  to  their  notches  by  wind- 
lasses, shot  iron-headed  darts  and  bolts  six  feet  long  and  four  in- 
ches thick.  On  some  of  the  ships  towers  were  erected,  in  which 
cannon,  missile-engines,  and  musketeers  were  stationed,  to  shoot 
out  fire-arrows,  stones,  and  balls.  At  close  quarters  the  space  at 
the  bows — about  one-third  of  the  deck — was  free  for  the  move- 
ments of  the  men  wielding  spear  and  sword,  and  for  those  who 
plied  the  grappling  hooks  or  boarding  planks.  The  decks  crowded 
with  men  in  armor,  the  glitter  of  steel  and  flash  of  oars,  the  blare 
9 


130 


COREA. 


of  the  long  Corean  trumpets,  and  the  gay  fluttering  of  thousands 
of  silken  flags  and  streamers  made  brilliant  defiance. 

The  Japanese  accepted  the  challenge,  and,  sailing  out,  closed 
with  the  enemy.  Wherever  they  could,  they  ran  alongside  and 
gave  battle  at  the  bows.  Though  their  ships  were  smaller,  they 
were  more  manageable.  In  some  cases,  they  ran  under  the  high 
sterns  and  climbed  on  board  the  enemy’s  ships.  Once  at  hand  to 
hand  fight,  their  superior  swordsmanship  quickly  decided  the  day. 
Their  most  formidable  means  of  offence  which,  next  to  their  can- 
non, won  them  the  victory,  were  their  rockets  and  fire-arrows, 
which  they  were  able  to  shoot  into  the  sterns,  where  the  dry 
wood  soon  caught  fire,  driving  the  crews  into  the  sea,  where  they 
drowned.  Two  hours  fighting  sufficed,  by  which  time  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy-four  Corean  ships  had  been  burned  or  taken. 
News  of  this  brilliant  victory  was  at  once  sent  by  a swift  vessel  to 
Japan. 

Endeavors  were  made  to  strengthen  the  garrison  at  Nan-on, 
but  the  Japanese  general,  Kato  Yoshiakira,  meeting  the  reinforce- 
ments on  their  way,  prevented  their  design.  Kato  Kiyomasa, 
changing  his  plans,  also  marched  to  Nan-on,  resolving  to  again, 
if  possible,  snatch  an  honor  from  his  rival.  As  usual,  the  younger 
man  was  too  swift  for  him.  Konishi  now  moved  his  entire  com- 
mand in  the  fleet  up  the  Sem  River,  in  Chulla  province,  and  land- 
ing, camped  at  a place  called  Uren,  eighteen  ri  from  Nan-on  castle. 
He  rested  here  five  days  in  the  open  meadow  land  to  allow  the 
horses  to  relax  their  limbs  after  the  long  and  close  confinement  in 
the  ships.  From  a priest,  whom  they  found  at  this  place,  they 
learned  that  the  garrison  of  Nan-on  numbered  over  20,000  Chi- 
nese and  Coreans,  the  reinforcements  in  the  province,  and  on  their 
way,  numbered  20,000  more,  while  in  the  north  was  another  Chi- 
nese corps  of  20,000. 

At  the  council  of  war  held,  it  was  resolved  to  advance  at  once 
to  take  the  castle  before  succor  came.  In  spite  of  many  lame 
horses,  and  the  imperfect  state  of  the  commissariat,  the  order  to 
march  was  given.  Men  and  beasts  were  in  high  spirits,  but  many 
of  the  horses  were  ridden  to  death,  or  rendered  useless  by  the 
forced  march  of  the  cavalry.  Early  on  the  morning  of  September 
21st,  the  advance  guard  camped  in  the  morning  fog  at  a distance  of 
a mile  from  the  citadel.  The  main  body,  coming  up,  surrounded 
it  on  all  sides,  pitched  their  camp,  threw  out  their  pickets,  set  up 
their  standards,  and  proceeded  promptly  to  fortify  their  lines. 


THE  SECOND  INVASION. 


131 


Nan-on  castle  was  of  rectangular  form,  enclosing  a space  nearly 
two  miles  square,  as  each  side  was  nine  thousand  feet  long.  Its 


walls,  which  were  twelve  feet  high,  were  built  of  great  stones,  laid 
together  without  cement.  Though  no  mortar  had  been  used  on 
wall  or  tower,  shell-lime  had  been  laid  over  the  outside,  iu  which 


132 


COREA. 


glistened  innumerable  fragments  of  nacre  and  the  enamel  of 
shells,  giving  the  structure  the  appearance  of  glittering  porcelain. 
At  the  angles,  and  at  intervals  along  the  flanks,  were  towers,  two 
or  three  stories  high.  The  four  ponderous  gates  were  of  stone, 
fourteen  feet  high. 

The  preparations  for  defence  were  all  that  Chinese  science 
could  suggest.  In  the  dry  ditch,  three  hundred  feet  wide,  was  an 
abatis  of  tree-trunks,  with  their  branches  outward,  behind  which 
were  iron-plated  wagons,  to  be  filled  with  archers  and  spearmen. 
From  the  towers,  fire-missiles  and  shot  from  firearms  were  in 
readiness. 

The  weak  points,  at  which  no  enemy  was  expected,  and  for 
which  preparations  for  defence  were  few,  were  on  the  east  and 
west. 

No  effect  being  produced  during  the  first  two  days,  either  by 
bullets  or  fire-arrows,  Konishi,  on  the  third,  sent  large  detach- 
ments of  men  into  the  rice-fields,  then  covered  with  a promising 
harvest  of  growing  rice,  which  the  farmers,  in  the  hope  of  peace, 
had  sown.  Reaping  the  green,  juicy  stalks,  the  hundreds  of  sol- 
diers gathered  an  enormous  quantity  of  sheaves  and  waited,  with 
these  and  their  stacks  of  bamboo  poles  and  ladders,  until  night. 
In  the  thick  darkness,  and  in  perfect  silence,  they  moved  to  a part 
of  the  wall  which,  being  over  twenty  feet  high,  was  but  slightly 
guarded,  and  began  to  build  a platform  of  the  sheaves.  Four  Ja- 
panese, reaching  the  top  by  climbing,  raised  the  war-cry,  and  one 
of  the  towers  being  set  on  fire  by  their  arrows,  the  work  was  dis- 
covered. Yet  the  matchlock  men  kept  the  walls  swept  by  their 
bullets,  while  the  work  of  piling  fresh  sheaves  and  bundles  of 
bamboo  went  on.  The  greenness  of  the  rice-stalks  made  the  mass 
both  firm  and  fire-proof.  At  last  the  mound  was  so  high  that  it 
overtopped  the  wall.  The  men  now  climbed  over  the  ramparts 
by  the  hundreds,  and  the  swordsmen,  leaping  into  the  castle, 
began  the  fight  at  hand  to  hand.  Most  of  the  Chinese  fought 
with  the  courage  of  despair,  while  others,  in  their  panic,  opened 
the  gates  to  escape,  by  which  more  of  the  besiegers  entered.  The 
garrison,  smitten  in  front  and  rear,  were  driven  to  the  final  wall 
by  Konishi’s  troops.  On  the  other  side  a body  of  picked  men, 
from  Kate’s  army,  joined  in  the  slaughter.  They  had  entered  the 
castle  at  the  rear,  by  scaling  a rugged  mountain  path  known  only 
to  the  Corean  prisoners,  whose  treachery  they  had  purchased  by 
the  promise  of  their  lives.  Between  the  two  attacking  forces  the 


THE  SECOND  INVASION. 


133 


Coreans  and  Chinese,  who  could  not  escape,  were  slain  by  thou- 
sands. 

Among  many  curious  incidents  narrated  by  Ogawuchi,  who 
tells  the  story  of  this  siege  and  attack,  was  this.  As  he  entered 
the  castle,  amid  the  smoke  and  confusion,  in  which  he  saw  some 
of  the  panic-stricken  garrison  destroying  themselves,  he  cut  off  the 
heads  of  two  enemies,  and  then,  suddenly  recollecting  that  this 
fifteenth  day  of  the  eighth  month  was  the  day  sacred  to  Hachi- 
man,  the  god  of  war  and  Buddha  of  the  Eight  Banners,  he  flung 
down  his  bloody  sword,  put  his  red  palms  together,  and  bowing 
his  head,  prayed  devoutly  toward  his  adored  Japan.  His  devo- 
tions ended,  he  sliced  off  the  noses  from  the  heads  of  the  two 
enemies  he  had  slain,  wrapped  them  in  paper,  twisted  the  pack- 
age to  his  girdle,  and  sprang  forward  to  meet,  with  but  three  men, 
the  charge  of  fifty  horsemen.  The  first  sweep  of  the  Japanese 
sabre  severed  the  leg  of  the  nearest  rider,  who  fell  to  the  earth  on 
the  other  side  of  his  horse,  and  Ogawuchi’ s companions  killing  each 
his  man,  the  enemy  fled.  The  fires  of  the  burning  towers  now 
lighted  up  the  whole  area  of  the  castle,  while  the  autumn  moon 
rose  red  and  clear.  Ogawuchi  slew,  with  his  own  hand,  Keku- 
sliiu,  one  of  the  Chinese  commanders.  His  body,  in  rich  armor, 
lined  with  gold  brocade,  was  stripped,  and  the  trappings  seemed 
as  trophies  to  be  sent  home,  while  his  head  was  presented  for 
Ivonishi’s  inspection  next  morning. 

According  to  the  barbarous  custom  of  the  victors,  they  severed 
the  heads  of  the  bodies  not  already  decapitated  in  fight,  until  the 
castle  space  resembled  a great  slaughter-yard.  Collecting  them 
into  a great  heap,  they  began  the  official  count.  The  number  of 
these  ghastly  trophies,  or  “ glory-signs,”  was  three  thousand  seven 
hundred  and  twenty-six.  The  ears  and  noses  of  the  slain  were 
then  sheared  off,  and  -with  the  commander’s  head,  were  packed 
with  salt  and  quick  lime  in  casks,  and  sent  to  Japan  to  form  the 
great  ear-tomb  now  in  Kioto,  the  honible  monument  of  a most 
unrighteous  war. 

A map  of  the  castle  and  town,  with  the  list  of  the  most  meri- 
torious among  the  victors,  was  duly  sent  back  to  Taiko.  Then 
the  walls  and  towers,  granaries,  and  barracks  were  destroyed. 
This  work  occupied  two  days. 

Promptly  on  September  30th  the  army  moved  on  to  Teru-shiu, 
the  cavalry  riding  day  and  night,  and  reaching  the  castle  only  to 
find  it  deserted,  the  garrison  having  fled  toward  Seoul.  The  Jap 


134 


COREA. 


anese  remained  here  ten  days,  levelling  the  fortress  with  fire  and 
hammer. 

As  the  cold  weather  was  approaching,  the  Japanese  command- 
ers, after  council,  resolved  at  once  to  march  to  the  capital.  Kat- 
suyoshi  and  Kiyomasa  had  joined  them,  and  the  advance  north- 
ward was  at  once  began.  By  October  19th  they  were  within 
seventeen  miles  of  Seoul.1 

The  successes  on  land,  brilliant  though  they  were,  were  bal- 
anced by  the  defeat  of  the  Japanese  navy  off  the  southern  coast. 
The  Chinese  admiral  Rishinshin,  in  conjunction  with  the  Coreans, 
won  an  important  victory  over  Kuroda’s  naval  forces  a few  days 
after  the  fall  of  Nan-on.  In  this  instance,  the  Chinese  ships  were 
not  only  heavy  enough  to  be  formidable  as  rams,  but  were  made 
more  manageable  by  numerous  rowers  sitting  in  well-defended 
timber  casements,  apparently  covered  with  metal.  The  warriors, 
too,  seem  to  have  been  armed  with  larger  lances.  The  Chinese 
commanders,  having  improved  their  tactics,  so  managed  their  ves- 
sels that  the  Japanese  fleet  was  destroyed  or  driven  away. 

This  event  may  be  said  to  have  decided  the  fate  of  the  cam- 
paign. Bereft  of  their  fleet,  which  would,  by  going  round  the 
west  coast,  have  afforded  them  a base  of  supplies,  they  were  now 
obliged  to  advance  into  a country  nearly  empty  of  forage,  and 
with  no  store  of  provisions.  As  in  the  opening  of  the  war,  so 
again,  the  loss  of  the  fleet  at  a critical  period  made  retreat  neces- 
sary even  at  the  moment  of  victory. 

Meanwhile,  the  Chinese  general  Keikai,  thoroughly  disliking 
the  rigors  of  a camp  in  a Corean  winter,  and  feeling  deeply  for  his 
soldiers  suffering  from  exposure  in  a desolate  land,  determined  on 
closing  the  war  as  soon  as  possible.  Erecting  an  altar,  in  presence 
of  the  army,  he  offered  sacrifices  to  propitiate  the  spirits  of  Heaven 
and  Earth,  and  prayed  for  victory  against  the  invaders.  Then,  after 
seeing  well  to  commissariat  and  equipment,  he  gave  orders  for  a 
general  movement  of  all  the  allied  forces,  with  the  design  of  end- 
ing the  war  by  a brief  and  decisive  campaign.  The  Japanese  gen- 
erals at  Koran,  by  means  of  their  spies  and  advance  parties,  kept 
themselves  well  informed  of  the  movements  of  the  enemy.  At  a 

1 Their  line  of  march,  as  shown  in  the  Japanese  histories,  was  to  Sen-ken, 
October  11th  ; to  Kumu-san,  where  they  experienced  the  first  frost ; to  Kumui, 
October  12th  ; to  Chin-zon  ; to  Funki ; to  Shaku-shiu  ; to  Koran  ; to  Chin-zen. 
These  are  names  of  places  in  Chulla  and  Cliung-chong,  expressed  in  the  Ja 
panese  and  old  Corean  pronunciation. 


THE  SECOND  INVASION. 


135 


skirmish  at  Chin-zen  the  Chinese  advance  guard  was  defeated 
with  heavy  loss,  but  the  Japanese  at  once  began  their  retreat. 
Sliishida  and  Ota,  who  were  further  east,  learning  of  the  over- 
whelming odds  against  them,  fell  back  into  "Cru-san,  which  was 
already  manned  by  a detachment  of  Kato’s  corps. 

While  Kato  and  Katsuyoshi  were  at  Chin-zen,  a grand  tiger 
hunt  was  proposed  and  carried  out,  in  which  a soldier  was  bitten 
in  two  places  and  died.  The  army  agreed  that  tiger-hunting  re- 
quired much  nerve  and  valor.  Besides  the  tiger  steaks,  which  they 
ate,  much  fresh  meat  was  furnished  by  the  numerous  crane,  pheas- 
ants, and  “ the  ten  thousand  things  different  from  those  in  Japan,” 
which  they  made  use  of  to  eke  out  their  scanty  rations. 

To  remain  in  camp  until  the  Han  River  was  frozen  over,  and 
could  be  crossed  easily,  or  to  press  on  at  once,  was  the  question 
now  considered  by  the  Japanese.  "While  thus  debating,  word 
came  that  the  Chinese  armies  had  made  junction  at  Seoul,  and 
numbered  one  hundred  thousand  men.  The  Japanese  “ felt  cold 
in  their  breasts  ” when  they  heard  this.  Far  from  their  base  of 
supplies,  their  fleet  destroyed,  and  they  at  the  threshold  of  winter 
in  a famine-stricken  land,  they  were  forced,  reluctantly,  again  to 
retreat  into  Iviung-sang. 

This  turning  their  backs  on  Seoul  was,  in  reality,  the  begin- 
ning of  their  march  homeward.  The  invaders,  therefore,  enriched 
themselves  with  the  spoil  of  houses  and  temples  as  they  moved 
toward  the  coast — gold  and  silver  brocades,  rolls  of  silk,  paint- 
ings, works  of  art,  precious  manuscripts,  books  written  with  gold 
letters  on  azure  paper,  inlaid  weapons  and  armor,  rich  mantles, 
and  whatever,  in  this  long-settled  and  wealthy  province,  pleased 
their  fancy.  On  the  boundaries  of  roads  and  provinces  they  no- 
ticed large  dressed  stone  columns  of  an  octagonal  form,  with  in- 
scriptions upon  them.  Their  route  lay  from  Chin-zen,  which  they 
left  in  ashes,  on  October  25th,  to  Chin-nan  ; to  Ho-won  ; to  Ho- 
kin  ; to  Karon  ; reaching  Kion-chiu,  the  old  capital  of  Shinra, 
after  some  fighting  along  the  way. 

The  Japanese  were  impressed  with  the  size  and  grandeur  of 
the  buildings  in  this  old  seat  of  the  civilization  and  learning  of 
Shinra  and  Korai.  Here,  in  ancient  days,  was  the  focus  of  the 
arts,  letters,  religion,  and  science  which,  from  the  west,  the  far  off 
mysterious  land  of  Lidia,  and  the  nearer,  yet  august,  empire  of 
China,  had  been  brought  to  Corea  Here,  too,  their  own  ancient 
mikados  had  sent  embassies,  and  from  this  historic  city  had  radia- 


136 


COREA. 


ted  the  influences  of  civilization  into  Japan.  As  Buddhism  had 
been  the  dominant  faith  of  Shinra  and  Korai,  this  was  the  old 
sacred  city  of  the  peninsula,  and  among  the  historic  edifices  still 
standing  and  most  admired  were  the  halls  and  pagodas  of  the 
Eternal  Buddha.  Kion-chiu  was  to  the  Japanese  very  much  what 
London  is  to  an  American,  Geneva  to  a Protestant,  or  Dordrecht 
to  a Hollander.  Yet,  in  spite  of  all  classic  associations,  the  city 
was  wantonly  destroyed.  On  the  moi-ning  of  November  2d,  be- 
ginning at  the  magnificent  temples,  the  whole  city  was  given  to 
the  torch.  Three  hundred  thousand  dwellings  were  burned,  and 
the  flames  lighted  up  the  long  night  with  the  glare  of  day. 

The  next  morning,  turning  their  backs  on  the  gray  waste  of 
ashes,  they  resumed  their  march.  Kokio,  Kunoi,  Sin-ne  were 
passed  through.  Skirmishing  and  the  destruction  of  castles,  and 
the  burning  of  granaries,  were  the  pastimes  enjoyed  between 
camps.  On  November  18th  the  army  reached  a river,  where  the 
Coreans  made  an  unsuccessful  night  attack,  repeating  the  same  in 
the  morning,  while  the  Japanese  were  crossing  the  stream,  with 
the  same  negative  results. 

Thence  through  Yei-tan,  they  came  to  Keku-shiu,  another 
famous  old  seat  of  Shinra’s  ancient  grandeur.  The  beautiful  situa- 
tion and  rich  appearance  of  the  city  charmed  the  invaders,  who 
lingered  long  in  the  deserted  streets  before  applying  the  torch. 
The  “ three  hundred  thousand  houses  of  the  people  ” were  clus- 
tered around  the  great  Buddhist  temple  in  the  centre.  The  clock- 
tower,  eighteen  stories  high,  was  especially  admired.  The  massive 
swinging  beam  by  which  the  tongueless  bells,  or  gongs,  of  the 
Far  East  are  made  to  boom  out  the  hours,  struck  against  a huge 
bronze  lotus  eight  or  nine  feet  in  diameter.  This  sacred  flower 
of  the  Buddhist  emblem  of  peace  and  calm  in  Nirvana  had  in 
Corean  art  taken  the  place  of  the  suspended  bell,  being  most 
probably  a cup-shaped  mass  of  metal  set  with  mouth  upright,  or 
like  a bell  turned  upside  down — such  being  the  form  often  seen 
in  the  temples  of  Chinese  Asia.  Again  did  antiquity,  religion,  or 
the  promptings  of  mercy  fail  to  restrain  the  invaders.  Securing 
what  spoils  they  cared  for,  everything  else  was  burned  up. 

After  camping  at  Kiran,  they  reached  the  sea-coast,  at  Uru-san, 
November  18th. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


THE  SIEGE  OF  URU-SAN  CASTLE. 

The  Japanese  now  took  up  the  spade  as  their  immediate  wea- 
pon of  defence  against  the  infuriated  Coreans  and  the  avenging 
Chinese.  A force  of  twenty-three  thousand  men  was  at  once  set 
to  work,  “ without  regard  to  wind  or  rain,”  along  the  lines  marked 
out  by  the  Japanese  engineers.  To  furnish  the  wood  for  towers, 
gates,  huts,  and  engines,  a party  of  two  thousand  axemen  and  la- 
borers, guarded  by  twenty-eight  mounted  pickets  and  three  hun- 
dred matchlock  men,  with  seven  flags,  went  daily  into  the  forest. 

The  winter  huts  were  hastily  erected,  walls  thrown  up,  ditches 
dug,  towers  built,  and  sentinels  and  watch  stations  set.  The  work 
went  on  from  earliest  daybreak  till  latest  twilight,  the  carpenters 
so  suffering  from  the  cold  that  “their  finger  nails  dropped  off.” 
By  the  first  part  of  January  the  castle  was  almost  completed. 
From  the  eleventh  day  the  garrison  took  rest. 

The  fortress  was  three-sided,  the  south  face  lying  on  the  sea. 
The  total  line  of  works  was  about  three  and  a half  miles,  pierced 
by  three  gates.  The  inner  defences  were  in  three  parts,  or  maru. 
The  third  maru,  or  enclosure,  had  stone  walls,  one  tower  and  one 
gate  ; the  second  had  two  towers,  two  gates  ; and  the  first  or 
chief  citadel  had  stone  walls,  forty-eight  feet  high,  with  two  towers 
and  two  gates. 

The  war  operations,  which  had  hitherto  covered  large  spaces 
of  the  country,  now  found  the  pivot  at  this  place  situated  in  Kiung- 
sang,  on  the  sea-coast,  thirty-five  miles  north  of  Fusan.  Another 
commander,  Asano,  marched  to  assist  the  garrison  and  entered 
the  castle  before  the  Ming  army  arrived.  His  advance  guard,  while 
reconnoitring,  was  defeated  by  the  Coreans,  yet  he  succeeded,  by 
an  impetuous  charge,  in  entering  the  castle. 

The  Chinese,  smarting  under  their  losses  at  Chin-sen,  and  stung 
by  the  gibes  of  the  Coreans,  now  hastened  to  IJru-san,  to  swallow 
up  the  Japanese.  The  Corean  army,  which  had  been  collecting 


138 


COREA. 


around  the  Japanese  camps,  were  soon  joined  by  the  advance 
guard  of  the  Ming  army.  The  arrival  of  the  Chinese  forces  was 
made  known  hi  the  following  manner. 

A Japanese  captain  commanded  one  of  the  advance  pickets, 


N 


Plan  of  Uru-san  Castle. — Explanation  : Hon,  First  Enclosure  ; Ni,  Second  ; San,  Third  ; G,  Gates  ; 
Q3HU  Bodies  of  Troops. 


which  had  their  quarters  in  the  cloisters  of  Ankokuji  (Temple  of 
the  Peaceful  Country).  One  night  a board,  inscribed  with  Chi- 
nese characters,  was  set  up  before  the  gate  of  the  camp.  The  sol- 
diers, seeing  it  in  the  morning,  but  unable  to  read  Chinese,  car- 


THE  SIEGE  OP  URU-SAN  CASTLE. 


13!) 


ried  it  to  their  captain,  who  handed  it  to  his  priest-secretary.  The 
board  contained  a warning  that  the  Chinese  were  near  and  would 
soon  attack  Uru-san.  Betraying  no  emotion  and  saying  nothing, 
the  captain  soon  after  declared  himself  on  the  sick-list,  and  se- 
cretly absconded  to  Fusan.  The  truth  was,  that  an  overwhelm- 
ing Ming  army  was  now  in  front  of  them  and  their  purpose  to  in- 
vest the  castle  was  thus  published.  The  entire  Japanese  forces 
were  now  gathered  close  under  the  walls,  or  inside  the  castle,  and 
the  sentinels  were  doubled. 

On  the  morning  of  January  30th  the  Ming  army  suddenly  as- 
saulted the  castle.  A small  detachment,  evidently  a decoy  and 
forlorn  hope,  attempting  to  scale  the  walls,  was  driven  back  by  the 
matchlock  men  and  began  to  retreat.  Seeing  this,  the  Japanese 
recklessly  opened  the  barbican  gate  and  began  pursuit  of  their 
enemies,  thinking  they  were  only  Coreans.  Lured  on  to  a dis- 
tance, they  suddenly  found  themselves  encircled  by  a mighty  host 
By  their  black  and  yellow  standards,  and  their  excellent  tactics, 
the  Japanese  officers  saw  that  they  were  Ming  soldiers.  The  dust 
raised  by  the  horses  of  the  oncoming  enemy  seemed  to  the  garri- 
son as  high  as  Atago  Mountain  in  Japan.  They  now  knew  that 
eighty  thousand  Chinese  were  before  their  gates.  Only  after  hard 
lighting,  was  the  remnant  of  the  Japanese  sortie  enabled  to  get 
back  within  the  castle,  while  the  allies,  surrounding  the  walls, 
fought  as  fiercely  as  if  they  intended  to  take  it  by  immediate  as- 
sault. Some  of  the  bravest  leaders  of  the  garrison  fell  outside, 
but  no  sooner  were  the  gates  locked  than  Katsuyoshi,  without  ex- 
tracting the  two  aiTOws  from  his  wounds,  or  stanching  the  blood, 
posted  the  defenders  on  the  walls  in  position.  Ogawuchi  had  per- 
formed the  hazardous  feat  of  sallying  out  and  firing  most  of  the 
outside  camps.  He  re-entered  the  castle  with  arrows  in  his  clothes, 
but  received  no  wounds.  The  battle  raged  until  night,  when  the 
Chinese  drew  off. 

The  Japanese  had  suffered  fearfully  by  the  first  combat  beyond 
and  on  the  walls.  “ There  was  none  but  had  been  shot  at  by  five 
or  ten  or  fifteen  arrows.”  One  of  their  captains  reckoned  their 
loss  at  eighteen  thousand  three  hundred  and  sixty  men,  which 
left  them  but  a garrison  of  five  thousand  fighting  men.  A large 
number  of  non-combatants,  including  many  of  the  friendly  people 
of  the  neighborhood,  had  crowded  into  the  fortifications,  and  had 
to  be  fed. 

Food  growing  scarcer,  and  danger  increasing,  Asano  sent  word 


140 


COREA. 


to  Kato  for  help.  On  a fleet  horse  the  messenger  arrived,  after  a 
ride  of  two  days.  Kato  had,  in  Japan,  taken  oath  to  Asano’s 
father  to  help  him  in  every  strait.  Immediately,  with  seventy 
picked  companions,  he  put  out  to  sea  in  seven  boats,  and,  after 
hard  rowing,  succeeded  in  entei'ing  the  castle. 

On  January  31,  1598,  the  war-conch  sounded  in  the  Ming  camp, 
as  the  signal  of  attack,  and  the  ears  of  the  besieged  were  soon 
deafened  by  the  yells  of  the  “ eighty  thousand  ” besiegers.  The 
Japanese  were  at  first  terrified  at  the  clouds  of  dust,  through 
which  the  awful  sight  of  ranks  of  men,  twenty  deep,  were  on  all 
sides  visible.  The  enemy,  armed  with  shields  shaped  like  a fowl’s 
wings,  upon  which  they  received  the  missiles  of  the  garrison, 
charged  on  the  outer  works,  but  when  into  and  on  the  slope  of  the 
ditch,  flung  their  shields  away,  and  plied  axe,  knife,  sword,  and 
lance.  Though  seven  attacks  were  repulsed,  the  wall  was  breached, 
the  outer  works  were  gained  by  overwhelming  numbers,  and  the 
garrison  was  driven  into  the  inner  enclosure. 

Night  fell  upon  the  work  of  blood,  but  at  early  mom,  the 
enemy  waked  the  garrison  with  showers  of  arrows,  and  with  lad- 
ders and  hurdles  of  bamboo,  tried  to  scale  the  walls.  In  four 
hours,  seven  attacks  in  force  had  been  repulsed,  yet  the  fighting 
went  on.  In  spite  of  the  intense  cold,  the  soldiers  perspired  so 
that  the  sweat  froze  on  their  armor.  Over  their  own  heaps  of 
corpses  the  Chinese  attempted  to  force  one  of  the  gates,  while, 
from  the  walls  of  the  inner  citadel,  and  from  the  higher  gate  above 
them,  the  Japanese  smote  them.  The  next  day  the  carnage  ceased 
from  the  third  to  the  ninth  hour.  On  February  3d,  the  Chinese, 
with  their  ladders,  were  again  repulsed.  At  night  their  sentinel  i 
“ gathered  hoar-frost  on  their  helmets,”  while  guarding  the  night 
long  against  the  sortie,  which  they  feared.  Another  attack  from 
the  clouds  of  enemies  kept  up  the  work  of  killing.  Some  of  the 
Japanese  warriors  now  noticed  that  their  stockings  and  greave- 
bands  kept  slipping  down,  though  adjusted  repeatedly.  The  fact 
was  their  flesh  had  shrunk  until  their  bones  were  nearly  visible, 
and  “their  legs  were  as  lean  as  bamboo  sticks.”  Another  warrior, 
taking  off  his  helmet  and  vizor,  was  seen  to  have  a face  so  thin 
and  wizen  that  he  reminded  his  comrades  of  one  of  those  hungry 
demons  of  the  nether  world,  which  they  had  seen  so  often  depicted 
in  temple  pictures  at  home. 

On  February  5th,  the  Ming  generals,  who  had  looked  upon  the 
reduction  of  Uru-san  as  a small  affair  to  be  settled  by  the  way,  and 


THE  SIEGE  OF  URU-SAN  CASTLE. 


141 


vexed  at  not  having  been  able  to  take  it  by  one  assault,  tried  ne- 
gotiation. In  fact,  they  were  suffering  from  lack  of  provisions. 
The  Japanese  sent  back  a defiant  answer,  and  some  of  them  prof- 
ited by  the  lull  in  the  fighting  to  make  fires  of  broken  arrows  and 
lances,  to  strip  the  armor  from  the  dead  and  frozen  carcasses  of 
their  steeds,  and  enjoy  a dinner  of  hot  horse-meat.  The  vast  num- 
ber of  shafts  that  had  fallen  within  the  walls,  were  gathered  into 
stacks,  and  those  damaged  were  reserved  for  fuel.  Outside  the 
citadel,  they  lay  under  the  wall  in  heaps  many  feet  high. 

The  next  day,  February  Gth,  was  one  of  quiet,  but  it  was  in- 
tensely cold,  and  many  of  the  worn  out  soldiers  of  the  garrison 
died.  Sitting  under  the  sunny  side  of  the  towers  for  warmth,  they 
were  found  in  this  position  frozen  to  death.  Yet  amid  all  the  suf- 
fering, the  Japanese  jested  with  each  other,  poured  out  mutual 
compliments,  and  kept  light  hearts  and  defiant  spirits. 

A council  of  war  had  been  held  February  2d,  at  Fusan,  and  a 
messenger  sent  to  encourage  the  garrison.  By  some  means  he  was 
able  to  communicate  with  his  beleaguered  brethren.  With  helmets 
off,  the  leaders  listened  to  the  words  of  cheer  and  praise,  and 
promised  to  hold  out  yet  longer. 

While  the  lull  or  truce  was  in  force,  the  Chinese  were,  accord- 
ing to  Ogawmchi,  plotting  to  entrap  the  Japanese  leaders.  . This 
they  learned  from  one  Okomoto,  a native  of  Japan,  who  had  lived 
long  in  China,  and  was  a division  commander  of  eight  thousand 
men  in  the  Chinese  army.  He  it  was  who  first  brought  the  offers 
of  accommodation  from  the  Ming  side.  The  Chinese  proposed  to 
get  the  Japanese  leaders  to  come  out  of  their  citadel,  leave  their 
horses  and  weapons  at  a certain  place,  and  go  to  the  altar  to 
swear  before  Heaven  to  keep  the  peace.  Then  the  Chinese  were 
to  surround  and  make  prisoners  of  the  Japanese.  Okomoto’ s soul 
recoiled  at  the  perfidy.  Going  by  night  to  the  side  of  the  castle 
near  the  hills,  he  was  admitted  in  the  citadel,  and  exposing  the 
plot,  gave  warning  of  the  danger.  A profoimd  impression  was 
produced  on  the  grateful  leaders,  who  immediately  made  a plan  to 
show  their  gratitude  to  Okomoto.  They  swore  by  all  the  gods  to 
reward  also  his  sons  and  daughters  who  were  still  living  in  Japan. 
When  this  fact  was  made  known  to  him,  he  burst  into  tears  and 
said  he  had  never  forgotten  his  wife  or  children  ; though  he  saw 
them  often  in  his  dreams,  yet  “the  winds  brought  him  no  news.” 

On  the  following  morning  a Chinese  officer,  coming  to  the  foot 
of  the  wall,  made  signs  with  his  standard,  and  offered  the  same 


142 


COREA. 


terms  in  detail  which  Okomoto  had  exposed.  The  Japanese  lead, 
ers  excused  themselves  on  the  plea  of  sickness,  and  the  parley 
came  to  nothing. 

Yet  the  sufferings  of  the  Japanese  were  growing  hourly  se- 
verer. To  half  rations  and  hunger  had  succeeded  famine,  and 
with  famine  came  actual  death  from  starvation.  Unfortunately 
there  was  no  well  in  the  castle,  so  the  Japanese  had  at  first  sallied 
out,  under  cover  of  the  night,  and  carried  water  from  the  mountain 
brooks.  The  Chinese,  discovering  this,  posted  archers  in  front  of 
every  accessible  stream,  and  thus  cut  off  all  approach  by  night  or 
day.  To  hunger  was  added  the  torture  of  thirst.  The  soldiers 
who  fought  by  day  stole  out  at  night  and  licked  the  wounds  of 
their  slain  enemies  and  even  secretly  chewed  the  raw  flesh  sliced 
from  the  corpses  of  the  Chinese.  Within  the  castle,  ingenuity  was 
taxed  to  the  utmost  to  provide  sustenance  from  the  most  unprom- 
ising substances.  The  famished  soldiers  chewed  paper,  trapped 
mice  and  ate  them,  killed  horses  and  devoured  every  part  of  them. 
Braving  the  arrows  of  the  Chinese  pickets,  they  wandered  at  night 
wherever  their  dead  enemies  lay,  and  searched  their  clothes  for 
stray  grains  of  parched  rice.  On  one  occasion  the  Chinese,  lying 
in  wait,  succeeded  in  capturing  one  hundred  of  the  garrison,  that 
were  prowling  like  ghouls  around  the  corpses  of  the  slain.  After 
this  the  commanders  forbade  any  soldier,  on  pain  of  death,  to 
leave  the  castle.  Yet  famine  held  revel  within,  and  scores  of 
starved  and  frozen  multiplied  into  hundreds,  until  room  for  the 
corpses  was  needed. 

Tidings  of  the  straits  of  the  dwindling  garrison  at  Uru-san  hav- 
ing reached  the  other  Japanese  commanders,  Nabeshima  and  Ku- 
roda,  they  marched  to  the  relief  of  their  compatriots.  One  of  the 
Chinese  generals,  Rijobai,  leaving  camp,  set  out  to  attack  them. 

The  foiled  Chinese  commander-in-chief,  angry  at  the  refusal  of 
the  Japanese  to  come  to  his  camp,  ordered  a fresh  attack  on  the  cas- 
tle. This  time  fresh  detachments  took  the  places  of  others  when 
wearied.  The  day  seemed  shut  out  by  the  dust  of  horses,  the  smoke 
of  guns,  the  clouds  of  arrows,  and  the  masses  of  flags.  Again  the 
scaling  ladders  were  brought,  but  made  useless  by  the  vigilant  de- 
fenders in  armor  iced  with  frozen  sweat,  and  chafing  to  the  bone. 
Their  constant  labor  made  “ three  hours  seem  like  three  years.” 
The  attack  was  kept  up  unceasingly  until  February  12th,  when 
the  exhausted  garrison  noticed  the  Chinese  retreating.  The  van 
of  the  reinforcements  from  Fusan  had  attacked  the  allies  in  the 


THE  SIEGE  OF  URU-SAN  CASTLE. 


143 


real’,  and  a bloody  combat  was  raging.  At  about  the  same  time 
the  fleet,  laden  with  provisions,  was  on  its  way  and  near  the  starv- 
ing garrison. 

Next  morning  the  keen  eyes  of  their  commander  noticed  flocks 
of  wild  birds  descending  on  the  Chinese  camp.  The  careful  scru- 
tiny of  the  actions  of  wild  fowl  formed  a part  of  the  military  edu- 
cation of  all  Japanese,  and  they  inferred  at  once  that  the  camp  was 
empty  and  the  birds,  attracted  by  the  l’efuse  food,  were  feeding 
without  fear.  Orders  were  immediately  given  to  a detachment  to 
leave  the  castle  and  march  in  pursuit.  Passing  through  the  de- 
serted Ming  camp,  they  came  up  with  the  forces  of  Kuroda  and 
Nabeshima,  who  had  gained  a great  victory  over  the  allies.  In 
this  battle  of  the  river  plain  of  Gisen,  February  9,  1598,  the  Jap- 
anese had  eighteen  thousand  men  engaged.  Their  victory  was 
complete,  thirteen  thousand  two  hundred  and  thirty-eight  heads 
of  Coreans  and  Chinese  being  collected  after  the  retreat  of  the 
allies.  The  noses  and  ears  were,  as  usual,  cut  off  and  packed  for 
shipment  to  Kioto. 

The  sufferings  of  the  valiant  defenders  were  now  over.  Help 
had  come  at  the  eleventh  hour.  For  fourteen  days  they  had 
tasted  neither  rice  nor  water,  except  that  melted  from  snow  or  ice. 
The  abundant  food  from  the  relief  ships  was  cautiously  dealt  out 
to  the  famished,  lest  sudden  plenty  should  cause  sudden  death. 
The  fleet  men  not  only  congratulated  the  garrison  on  their  brave 
defence,  but  decorated  the  battered  walls  with  innumerable  flags 
and  streamers,  while  they  revictualed  the  magazines.  On  the  ninth, 
the  garrison  went  on  the  ships  to  go  to  Sezukai,  another  part  of 
the  coast,  to  recruit  their  shattered  energies.  With  a feeling  as  if 
raised  from  the  dead,  the  warriors  took  off  their  armor.  The  re- 
action of  the  fearful  strain  coming  at  once  upon  them,  they  found 
themselves  lame  and  unable  to  stand  or  sit.  Even  in  their  dreams, 
they  grappled  with  the  Ming,  and,  laying  their  hand  on  their 
sword,  fought  again  their  battles  in  the  land  of  dreams.  For  three 
years  afterward  they  did  not  cease  these  night  visions  of  war. 

According  to  orders  given,  the  number  of  the  dead  lying  on 
the  frozen  ground,  within  two  or  three  furlongs  of  the  castle,  was 
counted,  and  found  to  be  fifteen  thousand  seven  hundred  and 
fifty-four.  Of  the  Japanese,  who  had  starved  or  frozen  to  death, 
eight  hundred  and  ninety-seven  were  reported. 

In  the  camp  of  the  allies,  crimination  and  recrimination  were 
going  on,  the  Coreans  angry  at  being  foiled  before  Uru-san,  and  the 


144 


COREA. 


Chinese  mortified  that  one  fortress,  with  its  garrison,  could  not 
have  been  taken.  They  made  their  plans  to  go  back  and  try  the  siege 
anew,  when  the  explosion  of  their  powder  magazine,  which  killed 
many  of  their  men,  changed  their  plans.  For  his  failure  the  Chi- 
nese commander-in-chief  was  cashiered  in  disgrace. 

On  May  10th  the  soldiers  of  the  garrison,  now  relieved,  left  for 
their  homes  in  Japan. 

Thus  ended  the  siege  of  TJru-san,  after  lasting  an  entire  year. 

After  this  nothing  of  much  importance  happened  during  the 
war.  The  invaders  had  suffered  severely  from  the  cold  and  the 
climate,  and  from  hunger  in  the  desolated  land.  Numerous  skir- 
mishes were  fought,  and  a continual  guerilla  war  kept  up,  but, 
with  the  exception  of  another  naval  battle  between  the  Japanese 
and  Chinese,  in  which  artillery  was  freely  used,  there  was  nothing 
to  influence  the  fortunes  of  either  side.  In  this  state  of  inaction, 
Hideyoshi  fell  sick  and  died,  September  9,  1598,  at  the  age  of 
sixty-three.  Almost  his  last  words  were,  “ Recall  all  my  troops 
from  Cho-sen.”  The  governors  appointed  by  him  to  carry  out  his 
policy  at  once  issued  orders  for  the  return  of  the  army.  The 
orders  to  embark  for  home  were  everywhere  gladly  heard  in  the 
Japanese  camps  by  the  soldiers  whose  sufferings  were  now  to  end. 
Before  leaving,  however,  many  of  the  Japanese  improved  every 
opportunity  to  have  a farewell  brush  with  their  enemies. 

It  is  said,  by  a trustworthy  writer,  that  214,752  human  bodies 
were  decapitated  to  furnish  the  ghastly  material  for  the  “ ear- 
tomb  ” mound  in  Kioto.  Ogawuclii  reckons  the  number  of  Co- 
rean  heads  gathered  for  mutilation  at  185,738,  and  of  Chinese 
at  29,014  ; all  of  which  were  despoiled  of  ears  or  noses.  It  is 
probable  that  50,000  Japanese,  victims  of  wounds  or  disease, 
left  their  bones  in  Corea. 

Thus  ended  one  of  the  most  needless,  unprovoked,  cruel,  and 
desolating  wars  that  ever  cursed  Corea,  and  from  which  it  has 
taken  her  over  two  centuries  to  recover. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


CHANGES  AFTER  THE  INVASION. 

The  war  over,  and  peace  again  in  the  land,  the  fugitives  re- 
turned to  their  homes  and  the  farmers  to  their  fields.  The  whole 
country  was  desolate,  the  scars  of  war  were  everywhere  visible, 
and  the  curse  of  poverty  was  universal.  From  the  king  and  court, 
in  the  royal  city,  of  which  fire  had  left  little  but  ashes,  and  of 
which  wrar  and  famine  had  spared  few  inhabitants,  to  the  peasant, 
who  lived  on  berries  and  roots  until  his  scanty  seed  rose  above 
the  ground  and  slowly  ripened,  ail  now  suffered  the  woful  want 
which  the  war  had  bred.  Kind  nature,  however,  ceased  not  her 
bountiful  stores,  and  from  the  ever-ready  and  ever-full  treasuries 
of  the  ocean,  fed  the  stricken  land. 

The  war  was  a fruitful  cause  of  national  changes  in  Corean  cus- 
toms and  institutions.  The  first  was  the  more  thorough  organiza- 
tion of  the  military,  the  rebuilding  and  strengthening  of  old  cas- 
hes, and  the  erection  of  new  ones  ; though,  like  most  measures  of 
the  government,  the  proposed  reforms  were  never  properly  carried 
out.  The  coasts  were  guarded  with  fresh  vigilance.  Upon  one 
of  the  Corean  commanders,  who  had  been  many  times  successful 
against  the  Japanese,  a new  title  and  office  was  created,  and  the 
coast  defence  of  the  three  southern  provinces  was  committed  to  him. 
This  title  was  subsequently  conferred  upon  three  officials  whose 
headquarters  were  at  points  in  Kiung-sang.  Among  the  literary 
fruits  of  the  leisure  now  afforded  was  the  narrative,  in  Chinese,  of 
the  events  leading  to  the  war  with  the  Japanese,  written  by  a high 
dignitary  of  the  court,  and  covering  the  period  from  about  1586  to 
1598.  This  is,  perhaps,  the  only  book  reprinted  in  Japan,  which  gives 
the  Corean  side  of  the  war.  In  his  preface  the  excessively  modest 
author  states  that  he  writes  the  book  “because  men  ought  to  look 
at  the  present  in  the  mirror  of  the  past.”  The  Chinese  style  of 
this  writer  is  difficult  for  an  ordinary  Japanese  to  read.  The  book 
(Chohitsuroku)  contains  a curious  map  of  the  eight  provinces. 

10 


L46 


COREA. 


In  Japan  the  energies  of  the  returned  warriors  were  fully  em- 
ployed at  home  after  their  withdrawal  from  Corea.  The  adher- 
ents of  Taiko  and  those  of  Iyeyasu,  the  rising  man,  came  to  blows, 
and  at  the  great  battle  of  Sekigahara,  in  October,  1600,  Iyeyasii 
crashed  his  foes.  Many  of  the  heroes  of  the  peninsular  campaign 
fell  on  the  field  ; or,  as  beaten  men,  disembowelled  themselves, 
according  to  the  Japanese  code  of  honor. 

Konishi,  being  a Christian,  and  unable,  from  conscientious 
scruples,  to  commit  suicide  by  hara  kiri,  was  decapitated.  The 
humbled  spirit  and  turbulent  wrath  of  Satsuma  were  appeased, 
and  given  a valve  of  escape  in  the  permission  accorded  them  to 
make  definite  conquest  of  Riu  Kiu.  This  was  done  by  a well- 
planned  and  vigorously  executed  expedition  in  1609,  by  which  the 
little  archipelago  was  made  an  integral  part  of  the  Japanese  em- 
pire. When  retiring  from  Cho-sen,  in  1597,  the  daimio  and  gen- 
eral Nabeshima  requited  himself  for  the  possible  loss  of  further 
military  glory,  by  bringing  over  and  settling  in  Satsuma  a colony 
of  Corean  potters.  He  builded  better  than  he  knew,  for  in  found- 
ing these  industries  in  his  own  domain,  he  became  the  prime 
author  of  that  delight  of  the  aesthetic  world,  “old  Satsuma  faience.” 
Other  daimios,  in  whose  domains  were  potteries,  likewise  trans- 
ported skilled  workers  in  clay,  who  afterward  brought  fame  and 
money  to  their  masters.  On  the  other  hand,  Iyeyasu  sent  back  the 
Corean  prisoners  in  Japan  to  their  own  homes. 

The  spoil  brought  back  from  the  peninsular  campaign — wea- 
pons, flags,  brocades,  porcelains,  carvings,  pictures,  and  manu- 
scripts was  duly  deposited,  with  certifying  documents,  in  temples 
and  storehouses,  or  garnished  the  home  of  the  veterans  for  the 
benefit  of  posterity.  Some,  with  a literary  turn,  employed  their 
leisure  in  writing  out  their  notes  and  journals,  several  of  which 
have  survived  the  wreck  of  time.  Some,  under  an  artistic  impulse, 
had  made  valuable  sketches  of  cities,  scenery,  battle-fields,  and 
castles,  which  they  now  finished.  A few  of  the  victors  shore  off 
their  queues  and  hail-,  and  became  monks.  Others,  with  perhaps 
equal  piety,  hung  up  the  arrow-pierced  helmet,  or  corslet  slashed 
by  Chinese  sabre,  as  ex-voto  at  the  local  shrines.  The  writer  can 
bear  personal  witness  to  the  interest  which  many  of  these  authen- 
tic relics  inspired  in  him  while  engaged  in  their  study.  In  1878, 
a large  collection  of  various  relics  of  the  Corean  war  of  1592- 
1597  came  into  the  possession  of  the  mikado’s  government  in 
Tokio,  from  the  heirs  or  descendants  of  the  veterans  of  Taiko.  In 


CHANGES  AFTER  THE  INVASION. 


147 


Kioto,  besides  the  Ear-monument,  the  Hall  of  the  Founder,  in  one 
of  the  great  Buddhist  temples,  rebuilt  by  the  -widow  of  Taiko, 
was  ceiled  with  the  choice  wood  of  the  war  junk  built  for  the 
hero. 

Though  the  peninsula  was  not  open  to  trade  or  Christianity,  it 
was  not  for  lack  of  thought  or  attention  on  the  part  of  merchant 
or  missionary. 

In  England,  a project  was  formed  to  establish  a trading-sta- 
tion in  Japan,  and,  if  there  was  a possibility,  in  Corea  also,  or,  at 
least,  to  see  what  could  be  done  in  “the  island” — as  Corea  then, 
and  for  a long  time  afterward,  was  believed  to  be.  Through  the 
Dutch,  the  Jesuits,  and  their  countryman,  Will  Adams,  in  Japan, 
they  had  heard  of  the  Japanese  war,  and  of  Corea.  Captain  Sails 
arrived  off  Hirado  Island  about  the  middle  of  June,  1613,  -with  a 
cargo  of  pepper,  broadcloth,  gunpowder,  and  English  goods.  In 
a galley,  carrying  twenty-five  oars  and  manned  by  sixty  men  fur- 
nished by  the  daimio,  Saris  and  his  company  of  seventeen  Eng- 
lishmen set  out  to  visit  the  Iyeyasu  at  Yedo,  by  way  of  Suruga 
(now  Shidzuoka).  After  two  days’  rowing  along  the  coast,  they 
stopped  for  dinner  in  the  large  and  handsome  city  of  Hakata  (or 
Fukuoka),  the  city  being,  in  reality,  double.  As  the  Englishmen 
walked  about  to  see  the  sights,  the  boys,  children,  and  worse  sort 
of  idle  people  would  gather  about  them,  crying  out,  “ Core,  Core, 
Cocore  Ware  ” (Oh  you  Coreans,  Coreans,  you  Kokorai  men),  taunt- 
ing them  by  these  words  as  Coreans  with  false  hearts,  whooping, 
holloaing,  and  making  such  a noise  that  the  English  could  hardly 
hear  each  other  speak.  In  some  places,  the  people  threw  stones 
at  these  “Corean  ” Englishmen.  Hakata  was  one  of  the  towns  at 
which  the  embassy  from  Seoul  stopped  while  on  its  way  to  Yedo, 
and  the  incident  shows  clearly  that  the  Japanese  urchins  and 
common  people  had  not  forgotten  the  reputed  perfidy  of  the  Co- 
reans, while  they  also  supposed  that  any  foreigner,  not  a Portu- 
guese, with  whom  they  were  familiar,  must  be  a Corean.  In  the 
same  manner,  at  Nankin,  for  a long  while  all  foreigners,  even 
Americans,  were  called  “Japanese.” 

Nothing  was  done  by  Saris,  so  far  as  is  known,  to  explore  or 
open  Corea  to  Western  commerce,  although  the  last  one  of  the  eight 
clauses  of  the  articles  of  license  to  trade,  given  him  by  Iyeyasu, 
was,  “And  that  further,  without  passport,  they  may  and  shall  set 
out  upon  the  discovery  of  Yeadzo  (Yezo),  or  any  other  part  in  and 
about  our  empire.”  By  the  last  clause  any  Japanese  would  un- 


148 


COREA. 


derstand  Corea  and  Riu  Kiu  as  being  land  belonging  to,  but  out- 
side of  “ civilized  ” Nippon. 

After  leaving  Nagasaki,  and  calling  at  Bantam,  Saris  took  in  a 
load  of  pepper,  and  sailed  for  England,  reaching  Plymouth  Sep- 
tember 27,  1614. 

An  attempt  was  also  made  by  the  Dominican  order  of  friars  to 
establish  a mission  in  Corea.  Vincent  (Caun),  the  ward  of  Ko- 
nishi,  who  had  been  educated  and  sent  over  by  the  Jesuits  to  plant 
Christianity  among  his  countrymen,  reached  Peking  and  there 
waited  four  years  to  accomplish  his  purposes,  but  could  not, 
owing  to  the  presence  of  the  hostile  Manchius  in  Liao  Tung.  But 
just  as  he  was  returning  to  Japan,  in  1618,  another  attempt  was 
made  by  the  Dominican  friars  to  penetrate  the  sealed  land.  Juan 
de  Saint  Dominique,  a Castilian  Spaniard,  who  had  labored  as  a 
missionary  in  the  Philippine  Islands  since  1601,  was  the  chosen 
man.  Having  secured  rapid  mastery  of  the  languages  of  the 
Malay  archipelago,  he  was  selected  as  one  well  fitted  to  acquire 
Corean.  With  two  others  of  the  same  fraternity  he  embarked  for 
the  shores  of  Morning  Calm.  For  some  reason,  not  known,  they 
could  not  land  in  Corea,  and  so  passed  over  to  Japan,  where  the 
next  year,  March  19th,  having  met  persecution,  Dominique  died 
in  prison.  The  ashes  of  his  body,  taken  from  the  cremation  fur- 
nace, were  cast  in  the  sea  ; but  his  followers,  having  been  able  to 
save  from  the  fire  a hand  and  a foot,  kept  the  ghastly  remnants  as 
holy  relics. 

The  exact  relations  of  “the  conquering  and  the  vassal  state,” 
as  the  Japanese  would  say,  that  is,  of  Nihon  and  Cho-sen,  were  not 
definitely  fixed,  nor  the  menace  of  war  withdrawn,  until  the  last 
of  the  line  of  Taiko  died,  and  the  family  became  extinct  by  the 
death  of  Hideyori,  the  son  of  Taiko,  in  1612. 

There  is  not  a particle  of  evidence  that  the  conquerors  ever  ex- 
acted an  annual  tribute  of  “ thirty  human  hides,”  as  stated  by  a 
recent  French  writer.  While  Iyeyasu  had  his  hands  full  in  Japan, 
he  paid  little  attention  to  the  country  which  Taiko  had  us'-'d  as  a 
cockpit  for  the  Christians.  Iyeyasu  dealt  with  the  Jesuit,  the 
Christian,  and  the  foreigner,  in  a manner  different  from,  and  for 
obvious  reasons  with  success  greater  than,  that  of  Taiko.  He  uni- 
fied Japan,  re-established  the  dual  system  of  mikado  and  sh 5-gun, 
with  two  capitals  and  two  centres  of  authority,  Kioto  and  Tedo. 
He  cleared  the  ground  for  his  grandson  Iyemitsii,  who  at  once 
summoned  the  Coreans  to  renew  tributary  relations  and  pay  horn- 


CHANGES  AFTER  THE  INVASION. 


149 


age  to  him  at  Yedo.  Magnifying  his  authority,  he  sent,  in  1623, 
a letter  to  the  King  of  Corea,  in  which  he  styles  himself  Tai-kun 
(“Tycoon”),  or  Great  Prince.  This  is  the  equivalent  in  Chinese 
pronunciation  of  the  pure  Japanese  O-gimi,  an  ancient  title  applied 
only  to  the  mikado.  No  assumption  or  presumption  of  pomp  and 
power  was,  however,  scrupled  at  by  the  successors  of  Iyeyasu. 

The  title  “Tycoon,”  too,  was  intended  to  overawe  the  Coreans, 
as  being  even  higher  than  the  title  Ko/cu  0 (king  of  a [tributary] 
country),  which  their  sovereign  and  the  Ashikaga  line  of  rulers 
held  by  patents  from  the  Emperor  of  China,  and  which  Taiko  had 
scornfully  refused. 

The  court  at  Seoul  responded  to  the  call,  and,  in  1624,  sent  an 
embassy  with  congratulations  and  costly  presents.  The  envoys 
landed  in  Hizen,  and  made  their  journey  overland,  taking  the 
same  route  so  often  traversed  by  the  Hollanders  at  Deshima,  and 
described  by  Kaempfer,  Thunberg,  and  others.  A sketch  by  a Yedo 
artist  has  depicted  the  gorgeous  scene  in  the  castle  of  the  “ Ty- 
coon.” Seated  on  silken  cushions,  on  a raised  dais,  behind  the 
bamboo  curtains,  with  sword-bearer  in  his  rear,  in  presence  of  his 
lords,  all  in  imitation  of  the  imperial  throne  room  in  Kioto,  the 
haughty  ruler  received  from  the  Corean  envoy  the  symbol  of  vas- 
salage— a gohei  or  wand  on  which  strips  of  white  paper  are  hung. 
Then  followed  the  official  banquet. 

Since  the  invasion,  Fusan,  as  before,  had  been  held  and  garri- 
soned by  the  retainers  of  the  daimio  of  Tsushima.  At  this  port 
all  the  commerce  between  the  two  nations  took  place.  The  inter- 
change of  commodities  was  established  on  an  amicable  basis.  Jap- 
anese swords,  military  equipments,  works  of  art,  and  raw  prod- 
ucts were  exchanged  for  Corean  merchandise.  Having  felt  the 
power  of  the  eastern  sword-blades,  and  unable  to  perfect  their 
own  clumsy  iron  hangers,  either  in  temper,  edge,  or  material,  they 
gladly  bought  of  the  Japanese,  keeping  their  sword-makers  busy. 
Kaempfer,  who  was  at  Nagasaki  from  September  24,  1690,  to  No- 
vember, 1692,  tells  us  that  the  Japanese  imported  from  Fusan 
scarce  medicinal  plants,  especially  ginseng,  walnuts,  and  fruits  ; 
the  best  pickled  fish,  and  some  few  manufactures  ; among  which 
was  “ a certain  sort  of  earthen  pots  made  in  Japij  and  Ninke, 
two  Tartarian  provinces.”  These  ceramic  oddities  were  “much 
esteemed  by  the  Japanese,  and  bought  very  dear.” 

From  an  American  or  British  point  of  view,  there  was  little 
trade  done  between  the  two  countries,  but  on  the  strength  of  even 


150 


COREA. 


this  small  amount,  Earl  Russell,  in  1862,  tried  to  get  Great  Britain 
included  as  a co-trader  between  Japan  and  Corea.  He  was  not  suc- 
cessful. Provision  was  also  made  for  those  who  might  be  cast,  by 
the  perils  of  the  sea,  upon  the  shore  of  either  country.  At  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Yedo  government  a Chd-sen  Yashiki  (Corean  House), 
was  built  at  Nagasaki.  From  whatever  part  of  the  Japanese  shores 
the  waifs  were  picked  up,  they  were  sent  to  Nagasaki,  fed  and 
sheltered  until  a junk  could  be  despatched  to  Fusan.  These  un- 
fortunates were  mostly  fishermen,  who,  in  some  cases,  had  their 
wives  and  children  with  them.  It  was  from  such  that  Siebold  ob- 
tained the  materials  for  his  notes,  vocabulary,  and  sketches  in  the 
Corean  department  of  his  great  Archiv. 

The  possession  of  Fusan  by  the  Japanese  was,  until  1876,  a 
perpetual  witness  of  the  humiliating  defeat  of  the  Coreans  in  the 
war  of  1592-1597,  and  a constant  irritation  to  their  national  pride. 
Their  popular  historians,  passing  over  the  facts  of  the  case,  substi- 
tute pleasing  fiction  to  gratify  the  popular  taste.  The  subjoined 
note  of  explanation,  given  by  Dallet,  attached  to  a map  of  Corea 
of  home  manufacture,  thus  accounts  for  the  presence  of  the 
foreigners.  The  substance  of  the  note  is  as  follows  : During  the 
sixteenth  century  many  of  the  barbarous  inhabitants  of  Tsushima 
left  that  island,  and,  coming  over  to  Corea,  established  themselves 
on  the  coast  of  Corea,  in  three  little  ports,  called  Fusan,  Yum,  and 
Chisi,  and  rapidly  increased  in  numbers.  About  five  years  after 
Cliung-chong  ascended  the  throne,  the  barbarians  of  Fusan  and 
Yum  made  trouble.  They  destroyed  the  walls  of  the  city  of  Fusan, 
and  killed  also  the  city  governor,  named  Ni  Utsa.  Being  subdued 
by  the  royal  troops,  they  could  no  longer  live  in  these  ports,  but 
were  driven  into  the  interior.  A short  time  afterward,  having 
asked  pardon  for  their  crimes,  they  obtained  it  and  came  and  es- 
tablished themselves  again  at  the  ports.  This  was  only  for  a short 
time,  for  a few  years  afterward,  a little  before  the  year  1592,  they  all 
returned  to  their  country,  Tsushima.  In  the  year  1599  the  king, 
Syen-cho,  held  communication  with  the  Tsushima  barbarians.  It 
happened  that  he  invited  them  to  the  places  which  they  had 
quitted  on  the  coast  of  Corea,  built  houses  for  them,  treated  them 
with  great  kindness,  established  for  their  benefit  a market  during 
five  days  in  each  month,  beginning  on  the  third  day  of  the  month, 
and  when  they  had  a great  quantity  of  merchandise  on  hand  to 
dispose  of  he  even  permitted  them  to  hold  it  still  oftener. 

This  is  a good  specimen  of  Corean  varnish-work  carried  into 


CHANGES  AFTER  THE  INVASION. 


151 


history.  The  rough  facts  are  smoothed  over  by  that  well-applied 
native  lacquer,  which  is  said  to  resemble  gold  to  the  eye.  The 
official  gloss  has  been  smeared  over  more  modern  events  with 
equal  success,  and  even  defeat  is  turned  into  golden  victory. 

Yet,  with  all  the  miseries  inflicted  upon  her,  the  humble  nation 
learned  rich  lessons  and  gained  many  an  advantage  even  from  her 
enemy.  The  embassies,  which  were  yearly  despatched  to  yield 
homage  to  their  late  invaders,  were  at  the  expense  of  the  latter. 
The  Japanese  pride  purchased,  at  a dear  rate,  the  empty  bubble 
of  homage,  by  paying  all  the  bills.  We  may  even  suspect  that  a 
grim  joke  was  practised  upon  the  victors  by  the  vanquished. 
Year  by  year  they  swelled  the  pomp  and  numbers  of  their  train 
until,  finally,  it  reached  the  absurd  number  of  four  hundred  per- 
sons. With  imperturbable  effrontery  they  devastated  the  treasury 
of  their  “Tycoon.”  To  receive  an  appointment  on  the  embassy  to 
Yedo  was  reckoned  a rich  sinecure.  It  enabled  the  possessor  to 
enjoy  an  expensive  picnic  of  three  months,  two  of  which  were  at 
the  cost  of  the  entertainers.  Landing  in  Ckikuzen,  or  Hizen, 
they  slowly  journeyed  overland  to  Yedo,  and,  after  their  merry- 
making in  the  capital,  leisurely  made  their  jaunt  back  again.  For 
nearly  a century  the  Yedo  government  appeared  to  relish  the  sen- 
sation of  having  a crowd  of  people  from  across  the  sea  come  to 
pay  homage  and  bear  witness  to  the  greatness  of  the  Tokugawa 
family.  In  1710  a special  gateway  was  erected  in  the  castle  at 
Yedo  to  impress  the  embassy  from  Seoul,  who  were  to  arrive  next 
year,  with  the  serene  glory  of  the  sho-gun  Iyenobu.  From  a pa- 
vilion near  by  the  embassy’s  quarters,  the  Tycoon  himself  was  a 
spectator  of  the  feats  of  archery,  on  horseback,  in  which  the  Co- 
reans  excelled.  The  intolerable  expense  at  last  compelled  the 
Yedo  rulers  to  dispense  with  such  costly  vassalage,  and  to  spoil 
what  was,  to  their  guests,  a pleasant  game.  Ordering  them  to 
come  only  as  far  as  Tsushima,  they  were  entertained  by  the  So 
family  of  daimios,  who  were  allowed  by  the  “ Tycoon  ” a stipend 
in  gold  kobans  for  this  purpose. 

A great  social  custom,  that  has  become  a national  habit,  was 
introduced  by  the  Japanese  when  they  brought  over  the  tobacco 
plant  and  taught  its  properties,  culture,  and  use.  The  copious 
testimony  of  all  visitors,  and  the  rich  vocabulary  of  terms  relating 
to  the  culture,  curing,  and  preparation  of  tobacco  show  that  the 
crop  that  is  yearly  raised  from  the  soil  merely  for  purposes  of 
waste  in  smoke  is  very  large.  In  the  personal  equipment  of  every 


152 


COREA. 


male  Corean,  and  often  in  that  of  women  and  children,  a tobacco 
pouch  and  materials  for  tiring  forms  an  indispensable  part.  The 
smoker  does  not  feel  “ dressed  ” without  his  well-tilled  bag.  Into  the 
forms  of  hospitality,  the  requisites  of  threshold  gossip  and  social 
enjoyment,  and  for  all  other  purposes,  real  or  imaginary,  which 
nicotine  can  aid  or  abet,  tobacco  has  entered  not  merely  as  a lux- 
ury or  ornament,  but  as  a necessity. 

Another  great  change  for  the  better,  in  the  improvement  of  the 
national  garb,  dates  from  the  sixteenth  century,  and  very  probably 
from  the  Japanese  invasion.  This  was  the  introduction  of  the  cot- 
ton plant.  Hitherto,  silk  for  the  very  rich,  and  hemp  and  sea 
grass  for  the  middle  and  poorer  classes,  had  been  the  rule.  In 
the  north,  furs  were  worn  to  a large  extent,  while  plaited  straw 
for  various  parts  of  the  limbs  served  for  clothing,  as  well  as  pro- 
tection against  storm  and  rain.  The  vegetable  fibres  were  bleached 
to  give  whiteness.  Cotton  now  began  to  be  generally  cultivated 
and  woven. 

It  is  true  that  authorities  do  not  agree  as  to  the  date  of  the 
first  use  of  this  plant.  Dallet  reports  that  cotton  was  formerly 
unknown  in  Corea,  but  was  grown  in  China,  and  that  the  Chinese, 
in  order  to  preserve  a market  for  their  textile  fabrics  within  the 
peninsula,  rigorously  guarded,  with  all  possible  precautions,  against 
the  exportation  of  a single  one  of  the  precious  seeds. 

One  of  the  members  of  the  annual  embassy  to  Peking,  with 
great  tact,  succeeded  in  procuring  a few  grains  of  cotton  seed, 
which  he  concealed  in  the  quill  of  his  hat  feather.  Thus,  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  traditional  account  of  the  bringing  of  silk- 
worms’ eggs  inside  a staff  to  Constantinople  from  China,  the  pre- 
cious shrub  reached  Corea  about  five  hundred  years  ago.  It  is 
now  cultivated  successfully  in  the  peninsula  in  latitude  far  above 
that  of  the  cotton  belt  in  America,  and  even  in  Manchuria,  the 
most  northern  limit  of  its  growth. 

It  is  evident  that  a country  which  contains  cotton,  crocodiles, 
and  tigers,  cannot  have  a very  bleak  climate.  It  seems  more 
probable  that  though  the  first  seeds  may  have  been  brought  from 
China,  the  cultivation  of  this  vegetable  wool  was  not  pursued  upon 
a large  scale  until  after  the  Japanese  invasion.  Our  reasons  for  ques- 
tioning the  accuracy  of  the  date  given  in  the  common  tradition  is, 
that  it  is  certain  that  cotton  was  not  known  in  Northern  China  five 
hundred  years  ago.  It  was  introduced  into  Central  China  from 
Turkestan  in  the  fourteenth  century,  though  known  in  the  extrema 


CHANGES  AFTER  THE  INVASION. 


153 


south  before  that  time.  The  Chinese  pay  divine  honors  to  one 
Hwang  Tao  Po,  the  reputed  instructress  in  the  art  of  spinning  and 
weaving  the  “tree- wool.”  She  is  said  to  have  come  from  Hainan 
Island. 

Though  cotton  was  first  brought  to  Japan  by  a Hindoo,  in  the 
year  799,  yet  the  art  of  its  culture  seems  to  have  been  lost  during 
the  long  civil  wars  of  the  middle  ages.  The  fact  that  it  had 
become  extinct  is  shown  in  a verse  of  poetry  composed  by  a court 
noble  in  1248.  “ The  cotton-seed,  that  was  planted  by  the  foreigner 
and  not  by  the  natives,  has  died  away.”  In  another  Japanese  book, 
written  about  1570,  it  is  stated  that  cotton  had  again  been  intro- 
duced and  planted  in  the  southern  provinces. 

The  Portuguese,  trading  at  Nagasaki,  made  cotton  wool  a fa- 
miliar object  to  the  Japanese  soldiers.  "While  the  army  wras  in 
Corea  a European  ship,  driven  far  out  of  her  course  and  much 
damaged  by  the  storm,  anchored  off  Yokohama.  Being  kindly 
treated  while  refitting,  the  captain,  among  other  gifts  to  the 
daimio  of  the  province,  gave  him  a bag  of  cotton  seeds,  which 
were  distributed.  The  yarn  selling  at  a high  price,  the  culture  of 
the  shrub  spread  rapidly  through  the  provinces  of  Eastern  and 
Northern  Japan,  being  already  common  in  the  south  provinces. 
Even  if  the  culture  of  cotton  was  not  introduced  into  Corea  by 
the  Japanese  army,  it  is  certain  that  it  has  been  largely  exported 
from  Japan  during  the  last  two  centuries.  The  increase  of  gen- 
eral comfort  by  this  one  article  of  wear  and  use  can  hardly  be  es- 
timated. Not  only  as  wool  and  fibre,  but  in  the  oil  from  its  seeds, 
the  nation  added  largely  to  the  sum  of  its  blessings. 

Paper,  from  silk  and  hemp,  rice  stalk  fibres,  mulberry  bark, 
and  other  such  raw  material,  had  long  been  made  by  the  Chinese, 
but  it  is  probable  that  the  Coreans,  first  of  the  nations  of  Chinese 
Asia,  made  paper  from  cotton  wool.  For  this  manufacture  they 
to-day  are  famed.  Their  paper  is  highly  prized  in  Peking  and 
Japan  for  its  extreme  thickness  and  toughness.  It  forms  part  of 
the  annual  tribute  which  the  embassies  carry  to  Peking.  It  is 
often  thick  enough  to  be  split  into  several  layers,  and  is  much 
used  by  the  tailors  of  the  Chinese  metropolis  as  a lining  for  the 
coats  of  mandarins  and  gentlemen.  It  also  serves  for  the  covei*ing 
of  window-frames,  and  a sewed  wad  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  thick- 
nesses of  it  make  a kind  of  armor  which  the  troops  wear.  It  will 
resist  a musket-ball,  but  not  a rifle-bullet. 


CHAPTER  XXL 


THE  ISSACHAR  OF  EASTERN  ASIA. 

The  Shan-yan  Alin,  or  Ever- White  Mountains,  stand  like  a wall 
along  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Corean  peninsula.  Irregular 
mountain  masses  and  outjutting  ranges  of  hills  form  its  buttresses, 
while,  at  intervals,  lofty  peaks  rise  as  towers.  These  are  all  ovei'- 
topped  by  the  central  spire  Paik-tu,  or  Whitehead,  which  may  be 
over  ten  thousand  feet  high.  From  its  bases  flow  out  the  Yalu, 
Tumen,  and  Htuka  Rivers. 

From  primeval  times  the  dwellers  at  the  foot  of  this  mountain, 
who  saw  its  ever  hoary  head  lost  in  the  clouds,  or  glistening  with 
fresh-fallen  snow,  conceived  of  a spirit  dwelling  on  its  heights  in 
the  form  of  a virgin  in  w'hite.  Her  servants  were  animals  in  white 
fur  and  birds  in  white  plumage. 

When  Buddhism  entered  the  peninsula,  as  in  China  and  Japan, 
so,  in  Corea,  it  absorbed  the  local  deities,  and  hailed  them  under 
new  names,  as  previous  incarnations  of  Buddha  before  his  avatar 
in  India,  or  the  true  advent  of  the  precious  faith  through  his  mis- 
sionaries. They  were  thenceforth  adopted  into  the  Buddhist  pan- 
theon, and  numbered  among  the  worshipped  Buddhas.  The  spirit 
of  the  Ever- White  Mountains,  the  virgin  in  ever-white  robes, 
named  Manchusri,  wdiose  home  lay  among  the  unmelting  snows, 
was  one  of  these.  Perhaps  it  was  from  this  deity  that  the  Man- 
chius,  the  ancestors  of  the  xuling  dynasty  of  China,  the  wearers  of 
the  world-famous  hair  tails,  took  their  name. 

According  to  Manchiu  legend,  as  given  by  Professor  Douglas, 
it  is  said  that  “in  remote  ages,  three  heaven-born  vii-gins  dwelt 
beneath  the  shadow  of  the  Great  White  Mountains,  and  that,  while 
they  were  bathing  in  a lake  which  reflected  in  its  bosom  the 
snowy  clad  peaks  which  towered  above  it,  a magpie  dropped  a 
blood  red  fiuit  on  the  clothes  of  the  youngest.  This  the  maiden 
instinctively  devoured,  and  forthwith  conceived  and  bore  a son, 
whose  name  they  called  Ai-sin  Ghioro,  which  being  interpreted  is 


THE  ISSACHAR  OF  EASTERN  ASIA. 


155 


Home  of  the  Manchius,  and  Their  Migrations. 


156 


COREA. 


the  ‘ Golden  Family  Stem,’  and  which  is  the  family  name  of  the  em- 
perors of  China.  When  his  mother  had  entered  the  icy  cave  of 
the  dead,  her  son  embarked  on  a little  boat,  and  floated  down  the 
river  Hurka,  until  he  reached  a district  occupied  by  three  families 
who  were  at  war  with  each  other.  The  personal  appearance  of 
the  supernatural  youth  so  impressed  these  warlike  chiefs  that  they 
forgot  their  enmities,  and  hailed  him  as  their  ruler.  The  town  of 
O-to-le  [Odoli]  was  chosen  as  his  capital,  and  from  that  day  his 
people  waxed  fat  and  kicked  against  their  oppressors,  the  Chinese.” 

The  home  of  the  Manchius  was,  as  this  legend  shows,  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Ever- White  Mountains,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Hurka.  From  beyond  these  mountains  was  to  roll  upon  China  and 
Corea  another  avalanche  of  invasion.  Beginning  to  be  restless  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  they  had,  in  the  sixteenth,  consolidated  so  many 
tribes,  and  were  so  strong  in  men  and  horses,  that  they  openly  de- 
fied the  Chinese.  The  formidable  expeditions  of  Li-yu-sun,  previous 
to  the  Japanese  invasion  of  Corea,  kept  them  at  bay  for  a time,  but 
the  immense  expenditure  of  life  and  treasure  required  to  fight  the 
Japanese,  drained  the  resources  of  the  Ming  emperors,  while  their 
attention  being  drawn  away  from  the  north,  the  Manchiu  hordes 
massed  their  forces  and  grew  daily  in  wealth,  numbers,  discipline, 
and  courage.  The  invasion  of  Cho-sen  by  the  Japanese  veterans  was 
one  of  the  causes  of  the  weakness  and  fall  of  the  Ming  dynasty. 

To  repress  the  rising  power  in  the  north,  and  to  smother  the 
life  of  the  young  nation,  the  Peking  government  resorted  to  bar- 
barous cruelties  and  stern  coercion,  in  which  bloodshed  was  con- 
tinual. Unable  to  protect  the  eastern  border  of  Liao  Tung,  the  entire 
population  of  three  hundred  thousand  souls,  dwelling  in  four 
cities  and  many  villages,  were  removed  westward  and  resettled  on 
new  lands.  Fortresses  were  planned,  but  not  finished,  in  the  de- 
serted land,  to  keep  back  the  restless  cavalry  raiders  from  the  north. 
Thus  the  foundation  of  the  neutral  strip  of  fifty  miles  was  uncon- 
sciously laid,  and  ten  thousand  square  miles  of  fair  and  fertile 
land,  west  of  the  Yalu,  was  abandoned  to  the  wolf  and  tiger. 
What  it  soon  became,  it  has  remained  until  yesterday — a howling 
wilderness.  (See  map  on  page  155.) 

Unable  to  meet  these  cotton-armored  raiders  in  the  field,  the 
Ming  emperor  ordered,  and  in  1615  consummated,  the  assassina- 
tion of  their  king.  This  exasperated  all  the  Manchiu  tribes  to 
vengeance,  and  hostilities  on  a large  scale  at  once  began  by  a 
southwest  movement  into  Liao  Tung. 


THE  ISSACHAR  OP  EASTERN  ASIA. 


157 


China  had  now  again  to  face  an  invasion  greater  than  the  Jap- 
anese, for  this  time  a whole  nation  was  behind  it.  Calling  on 
her  vassal,  the  Eastern  Kingdom,  to  send  an  army  of  twenty  thou- 
sand men,  she  ordered  them  to  join  the  imperial  army  at  Hing- 
king.  This  city,  now  called  Yen-den,  lies  about  seventy  miles 
west  of  the  Yalu  River,  near  the  42d  parallel,  just  beyond  what  was 
“the  neutral  strip,”  and  inside  the  palisades  erected  later.  In 
the  battle,  which  ensued,  the  Coreans  first  faced  the  Manchius. 
The  imperial  legions  were  beaten,  and  the  Coreans,  seeing  which 
way  the  victory  would  finally  turn,  deserted  from  the  Chinese  side 
to  that  of  their  enemy.  This  was  in  1619. 

The  Manchiu  general  sent  back  some  of  the  runaway  Coreans 
to  their  king,  intimating  that,  though  the  Coreans  were  acting 
gratefully  in  assisting  the  Chinese,  who  had  formerly  helped  the 
Coreans  against  the  Japanese,  yet  it  might  hereafter  be  better  to 
remain  neutral.  So  far  from  taking  any  notice  of  this  letter,  the 
government  at  Seoul  allowed  the  king’s  subjects  to  cross  the  Yalu 
and  assist  the  people  of  Liao  Tung  against  the  Manchius,  who 
were  making  Hing-king  their  capital.  At  the  same  time  the  Chi- 
nese commander  was  permitted  to  enter  Corea,  and  thence  to 
make  expeditions  against  the  Manchius,  by  which  they  inflicted 
great  damage  upon  the  enemy.  This  continued  until  the  winter 
of  1827,  when  the  Manchius,  having  lost  all  patience  with  Corea, 
prepared  to  invade  the  peninsula.  Compelling  two  refugees  to 
act  as  their  guides,  they  crossed  the  frozen  Yalu  in  four  divisions, 
in  February,  and  at  once  attacked  the  Chinese  army,  which  was 
defeated,  and  retreated  into  Liao  Tung.  They  then  began  the 
march  to  Seoul.  Ai-chiu  was  the  first  town  taken,  and  then,  after 
crossing  the  Ching-chong  River,  followed  in  succession  the  cities 
lining  the  high  road  to  Ping-an.  Thence,  over  the  Tatong  River, 
they  pressed  on  to  Seoul,  the  Coreans  everywhere  flying  before  them. 
Thousands  of  dwellings  and  magazines  of  provisions  were  given  to 
the  flames,  and  their  trail  was  one  of  blood  and  ashes.  Among  the 
slain  were  two  Hollanders,  who  were  captives  in  the  country. 

Heretofore  a line  of  strong  palisades  had  separated  Corea  from 
Manchuria,  on  the  north,  but  large  portions  of  it  were  destroyed 
at  this  time  in  the  constant  forays  along  the  border.  Those  parts 
which  stood  yet  intact  were  often  seen  by  travellers  along  the 
Manchurian  side  as  late  as  toward  the  end  of  the  last  century. 
Since  then  this  wooden  wall,  a pigmy  imitation  of  China’s  colossal 
embargo  in  masonry,  has  gradually  fallen  into  decay. 


158 


COREA. 


The  Mancilius  invested  Seoul  and  began  its  siege  in  earnest. 
The  queen  and  ladies  of  the  court  had  already  been  sent  to 
Kang-wa  Island.  The  king,  to  avoid  further  shedding  of  blood, 
sent  tribute  offerings  to  the  invaders,  and  concluded  a treaty  of 
peace  by  which  Cho-sen  again  exchanged  masters,  the  king  not 
only  acknowledging  from  the  Manchiu  sovereign  the  right  of  in- 
vestiture, but  also  direct  authority  over  his  person,  that  is,  the 
relation  of  master  and  subject. 

The  Coreans  now  waited  to  see  whether  events  were  likely  to 
modify  their  new  relations,  so  reluctantly  entered  into,  for  the  Chi- 
nese were  far  from  beaten  as  yet.  When  free  from  the  presence 
of  the  invading  army  the  courage  of  the  ministers  rose,  and  by 
their  advice  the  king,  by  gradual  encroachments  and  neglect,  an- 
nulled the  treaty. 

No  sooner  were  the  Manchius  able  to  spare  their  forces  for  the 
purpose,  than,  turning  from  China,  they  marched  into  Corea,  one 
hundred  thousand  strong,  well  supplied  with  provisions  and  bag- 
gage-wagons. Entering  the  peninsula,  both  at  Ai-chiu  and  by  the 
northern  pass,  they  reached  Seoul,  and,  after  severe  fighting,  en- 
tered it.  Being  now  provided  with  cannon  and  boats,  they  took 
Kang-wa,  into  which  all  the  royal,  and  many  of  the  noble,  ladies 
had  fled  for  safety. 

The  king  now  came  to  terms,  and  made  a treaty  in  February, 
1637,  in  which  he  utterly  renounced  his  allegiance  to  the  Ming 
emperor,  agreed  to  give  his  two  sons  as  hostages,  promised  to 
send  an  annual  embassy,  with  tribute,  to  the  Manchiu  court,  and 
to  establish  a market  at  the  Border  Gate,  in  Liao  Tung.  These 
covenants  were  ratified  by  the  solemn  ceremonial  of  the  king,  his 
sons  and  his  ministers  confessing  their  crimes  and  making  “kow- 
tow ” (bowing  nine  times  to  the  earth).  Tartar  and  Corean  wor- 
shipped together  before  Heaven,  and  the  altar  erected  to  Heaven’s 
honor.  A memorial  stone,  erected  near  this  sacred  place,  com- 
memorates the  clemency  of  the  Manchiu  conqueror. 

In  obedience  to  the  orders  of  their  new  masters,  the  Coreans 
despatched  ships,  loaded  with  grain,  to  feed  the  armies  operating 
against  Peking,  and  sent  a small  force  beyond  the  Tumen  to  chas- 
tise a tribe  that  had  rebelled  against  their  conquerors.  A picked 
body  of  their  matchlock  men  was  also  admitted  into  the  Manchiu 
service. 

After  the  evacuation  of  Corea,  the  victors  marched  into  China, 
where  bloody,  civil  war  was  already  raging.  The  imperial  army 


THE  ISSACHAR  OF  EASTERN  ASIA. 


159 


was  badly  beaten  by  the  rebels  headed  by  the  usurper  Li-tse- 
ching.  The  Mancbius  joined  their  forces  with  the  Imperialists, 
and  defeated  the  rebels,  and  then  demanded  the  price  of  their 
victory.  Entering  Peking,  they  proclaimed  the  downfall  of  the 
house  of  Ming.  The  Tatar  (vassal)  was  now  a “Tartar.”  The 
son  of  their  late  king  was  set  upon  the  dragon-throne  and  pro- 
claimed the  Whang  Ti,  the  Son  of  Heaven,  and  the  Lord  of  the 
Middle  Kingdom  and  all  her  vassals.  The  following  tribute  was 
fixed  for  Cho-sen  to  pay  annually  : 

100  ounces  of  gold,  1,000  ounces  of  silver,  10,000  bags  of  rice, 

2.000  pieces  of  silk,  300  pieces  of  linen,  10,000  pieces  of  cotton 
cloth,  400  pieces  of  hemp  cloth,  100  pieces  of  fine  hemp  cloth, 

10.000  rolls  (fifty  sheets  each)  of  large  paper,  1,000  rolls  small 
sized  paper,  2,000  knives  (good  quality),  1,000  ox-horns,  40  de- 
corated mats,  200  pounds  of  dye-wood,  10  boxes  of  pepper,  100 
tiger  skins,  100  deer  skins,  400  beaver  skins,  200  skins  of  blue 
(musk  ?)  rats. 

When,  as  it  happened  the  very  next  year,  the  sho-gun  of  Japan 
demanded  an  increase  of  tribute  to  be  paid  in  Yedo,  the  court  of 
Seoul  plead  in  excuse  their  wasted  resources  consequent  upon  the 
war  with  the  Mancliius,  and  their  heavy  burdens  newly  laid  upon 
them.  Their  excuse  was  accepted. 

Twice,  within  a single  generation,  had  the  little  peninsula  been 
devastated  by  two  mighty  invasions  that  ate  up  the  land.  Between 
the  mountaineers  of  the  north,  and  “ the  brigands  ” from  over  the 
sea,  Corea  was  left  the  Issachar  among  nations.  The  once  strong 
ass  couched  down  between  two  burdens.  “And  he  saw  that  the 
rest  was  good,  and  the  land  that  it  was  pleasant,  and  bowed  his 
shoulder  to  bear,  and  became  a servant  unto  tribute.” 

The  Manchius,  being  of  different  stock  and  blood  from  the 
Chinese,  yet  imposed  their  dress  and  method  of  wealing  the  hair 
upon  the  millions  of  Chinese  people,  but  here  their  tyranny 
seemed  to  stop.  Hitherto,  the  Chinese  and  Corean  method  of 
rolling  the  hair  in  a knot  or  ball,  on  the  top  of  the  head,  had  been 
the  fashion  for  ages.  As  a sign  of  loyalty  to  the  new  rulers,  all 
people  in  the  Middle  Kingdom  were  compelled  to  shave  the  fore- 
front of  the  head  and  allow  their  hair  to  grow  in  a queue,  or  pig- 
tail, behind  on  their  back.  At  first  they  resisted,  and  much  blood 
was  shed  before  all  submitted ; but,  at  length,  the  once  odious 
mark  of  savagery  and  foreign  conquest  became  the  national  fash- 
ion, and  the  Chinaman’s  pride  at  home  and  abroad.  Even  in 


160 


COREA. 


foreign  lands,  they  cling  to  this  mark  of  their  loyalty  as  to  life 
and  country.  The  object  of  the  recent  queue-cutting  plots,  fo- 
mented by  the  political,  secret  societies  of  China,  is  to  insult  the 
imperial  family  at  Peking  by  robbing  the  Chinese  of  their  loyal 
appendage,  and  the  special  sign  of  the  Tartar  dominion. 

As  a special  favor  to  the  Coreans  who  first  submitted  to  the 
new  masters  of  Kathay,  they  were  spared  the  infliction  of  the 
queue,  and  allowed  to  dress  their  hair  in  the  ancient  style. 

The  Corean  king  hastened  to  send  congratulations  to  the  em- 
peror, Shun  Chi,  which  ingratiated  him  still  more  in  favor  at 
Pekiug.  In  1650  a captive  Corean  maid,  taken  prisoner  in  their 
first  invasion,  became  sixth  lady  in  rank  in  the  imperial  house- 
hold. Through  her  influence  her  father,  the  ambassador,  obtained 
a considerable  diminution  of  the  annual  tribute,  fixed  upon  in  the 
terms  of  capitulation  in  1637.  In  1643,  one-third  of  this  tribute 
had  been  remitted,  so  that,  by  this  last  reduction,  in  1650,  the  tax 
upon  Corean  loyalty  was  indeed  very  slight.  Indeed  it  has  long 
been  considered  by  the  Peking  government  that  the  Coreans  get 
about  as  much  as  they  give,  and  the  embassy  is  one  of  ceremony 
rather  than  of  tribute-bringing.  Then-  offering  is  rather  a per- 
centage paid  for  license  to  trade,  than  a symbol  of  vassalage. 
Nevertheless,  the  Coreans  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies found  out,  to  their  cost,  that  any  lack  of  due  deference 
was  an  expensive  item  of  freedom.  Every  jot  and  tittle,  or  tithe 
of  the  mint  or  anise  of  etiquette,  was  exacted  by  the  proud  Man- 
chius.  In  1695,  the  king  of  Cho-sen  was  fined  ten  thousand  ounces 
of  silver  for  the  omission  of  some  punctilio  of  vassalage.  At  the 
investiture  of  each  sovereign  in  Seoul,  two  grandees  were  sent 
from  Peking  to  confer  the  patent  of  royalty.  The  little  bill  for 
this  costly  favor  was  about  ten  thousand  taels,  or  dollars,  in  silver. 
The  Coreans  also  erected,  near  one  of  the  gates  of  Seoul,  a temple, 
which  still  stands,  in  honor  of  the  Manchius  general  commanding 
the  invasion,  and  to  whom,  to  this  day,  they  pay  semi-divine  hon- 
ors. Yet  to  encourage  patriotism  it  was  permitted,  by  royal  de- 
cree, to  the  descendants  of  the  minister  who  refused,  at  the  Yalu 
River,  to  allow  the  Manchius  to  cross,  and  who  thereby  lost  hi?, 
life,  to  erect  to  his  memory  a monumental  gate,  a mark  of  high 
honor  only  rarely  granted. 

The  Jesuits  at  Peking  succeeded  in  ingratiating  themselves 
with  the  conquerors,  and  Shun-chi,  the  emperor,  was  a pupil  of 
Adam  Schall,  a German  Jesuit,  who  became  President  of  the  Board 


THE  ISSACHAR  OF  EASTERN  ASIA. 


161 


11 


Styles  of  Hair-dressing  in  Corea. 


162 


COREA. 


of  Mathematicians.  Nevertheless,  in  the  troubles  preceding  the 
peace,  many  upright  men  lost  their  lives,  and  hundreds  of  schol- 
ars who  hated  the  Tatar  conquerors  of  their  beloved  China — as 
the  Christians  of  Constantinople  hated  the  Turks — fled  to  Corea 
and  Japan,  conferring  great  literary  influence  and  benefit.  In 
both  countries  their  presence  greatly  stimulated  the  critical  study 
of  Chinese  literature.  With  the  Mito  and  Yedo  scholars  in  Japan, 
they  assisted  to  promote  the  revival  of  learning,  so  long  neglected 
during  the  civil  wars.  At  Nagasaki,  a Chinese  colony  of  merchants, 
and  trade  between  the  two  countries,  were  established,  after  the 
last  hope  of  restoring  the  Mings  had  been  extinguished  in  Koku- 
senya  (Coxinga),  who  also  drove  the  Dutch  from  Formosa  This 
exodus  of  scholars  was  somewhat  like  the  dispersion  of  the  Greek 
scholars  through  Europe  after  the  fall  of  the  Byzantine  empire. 

To  the  Jesuits  in  Peking,  who  were  mostly  Frenchmen,  belongs 
the  credit  of  beginning  that  whole  system  of  modem  culture,  by 
which  modem  science  and  Christianity  are  yet  to  transform  the 
Chinese  mind,  and  recast  the  ideas  of  this  mighty  people  con- 
cerning nature  and  Deity.  They  now  began  to  make  known  in 
Europe  much  valuable  information  about  China  and  her  outlying 
tributary  states.  They  sent  home  a map  of  Corea — the  first  seen 
in  Europe.  Imperfect,  though  it  was,  it  made  the  hermit  land 
more  than  a mere  name.  In  “ China  Illustrata,”  written  by  the 
Jesuit  Martini,  and  published  in  1649,  in  Amsterdam — the  city  of 
printing  presses  and  the  Leipsic  of  that  day — there  is  a map  of 
Corea.  The  same  industrious  scholar  wrote,  in  Latin,  a book,  en- 
titled “ De  Bello  inter  Tartaros  et  Seniensis  ” (On  the  War  between 
the  Manchius  and  the  Chinese),  which  was  issued  at  Antwerp  in 
1654,  and  in  Amsterdam  in  1661.  It  was  also  translated  into 
English,  French,  and  Spanish,  the  editions  being  issued  at  Lon- 
don, Donay,  and  Madrid.  The  English  title  is  “ Bellum  Tartari- 
c.um  ; or,  the  Conquest  of  the  Great  and  Most  Renowned  Empire 
of  China  by  the  Invasion  of  the  [Manchiu]  Tartars,”  London,  1654, 
octavo. 

The  Dutch  had  long  tried  to  get  a hand  in  the  trade  of  China, 
and,  in  1604,  1622,  and  1653,  had  sent  fleets  of  trading  vessels  to 
Chinese  ports,  but  were  in  every  instance  refused.  The  Russians, 
however,  were  first  allowed  to  trade  on  the  northern  frontier  of 
China  before  the  same  privileges  were  granted  to  other  Europeans. 
The  Cossacks,  when  they  first  crossed  the  Ural  Mountains,  in  1579, 
with  their  faces  set  towTard  the  Pacific,  never  ceased  their  advance 


THE  ISSACHAR  OF  EASTERN  ASIA. 


163 


till  they  had  added  to  the  Czar’s  domain  a portion  of  the  earth’s 
surface  as  large  as  the  United  States,  and  half  of  Europe.  Once  on 
the  steppes,  there  began  that  long  duel  between  Cossack  and  Tar- 
tar, which  never  ended  until  the  boundaries  of  Russia  touched 
those  of  Corea,  Japan,  and  British  America.  Cossacks  discovered, 
explored,  conquered,  and  settled  this  triple-zoned  region  of  frozen 
moss,  forest  land  and  fertile  soil,  bringing  over  six  million  square 
miles  of  territory  under  the  wings  of  the  double-headed  eagle. 
They  brought  reports  of  Corea  to  Russia,  and  it  was  from  Russian 
sources  that  Sir  John  Campbell  obtained  the  substance  of  his 
“Commercial  History  of  Chorea  and  Japan”  in  his  voyages  and 
travels,  printed  in  London,  1771. 

In  1645,  a party  of  Japanese  traversed  Cho-sen  from  Ai-chiu  to 
Fusan,  the  Dan  and  Beersheba  of  the  peninsula.  Returning  from 
their  travels,  one  of  them  wrote  a book  called  the  “ Romance  of 
Corea”  (Cho-sen  Monogatari).  Takeuchi  Tosaemon  and  his  son, 
Tozo,  and  shipmaster  Kunida  Hisosaemon,  on  April  26,  1645,  left 
the  port  of  Mikuni  in  the  province  of  Ecliizen — the  same  place  to 
which  the  first  native  of  Corea  is  said  to  have  reached  Japan  in 
the  legendary  period.  With  three  large  junks,  whose  crews  num- 
bered fifty-eight  men,  they  set  sail  for  the  north  on  a trading  voy- 
age. Oft’  the  island  of  Sado  a fearful  storm  broke  upon  them, 
which,  after  fifteen  days,  drove  them  on  the  mountain  coast  of 
Tartary,  where  they  landed,  May  12th,  to  refit  and  get  fresh  water. 
At  first  the  people  treated  them  peacefully,  trading  off  their  gin- 
seng for  the  sake,  or  rice-beer,  of  the  Japanese.  Later  on,  the 
Japanese  were  attacked  by  the  natives,  and  twenty-five  of  their 
number  slain.  The  remainder  were  taken  to  Peking,  where  they 
remained  until  the  winter  of  1646.  Honorably  acquitted  of  all 
blame,  they  were  sent  homeward,  into  the  Eastern  Kingdom,  under 
safe  conduct  of  the  Chinese  emperor  Slum-chi.  They  began  the 
journey  December  18th,  and,  crossing  the  snow-covered  mountains 
and  frozen  rivers  of  Liao  Tung,  reached  Seoul,  after  twenty-eight 
days  travel,  February  3,  1647. 

The  Japanese  were  entertained  in  magnificent  style  in  one  of  the 
l oyal  houses  with  banquets,  numerous  servants,  presents,  and  the  at- 
tendance of  an  officer,  named  Kan-shun,  who  took  them  around  the 
city  and  showed  them  the  sights.  The  paintings  on  the  palace  walls, 
the  tiger-skin  rugs,  the  libraries  of  handsomely  bound  books,  the 
festivities  of  New  Year’s  day,  the  evergreen  trees  and  fine  scenery, 
were  all  novel  and  pleasing  to  the  Japanese,  but  still  they  longed 


164 


COREA. 


to  reach  home.  Leaving  Seoul,  February  12th,  they  passed  through 
a large  city,  where,  at  sunset  and  sunrise,  they  heard  the  trum- 
peters call  the  laborers  to  begin  and  cease  work.  They  noticed 
that  the  official  class  inscribed  on  their  walls  the  names  and  dates 
of  reign  and  death  of  the  royal  line  from  the  founder  of  the 
dynasty  to  the  father  of  the  ruling  sovereign.  This  served  as  an  ob- 
ject lesson  in  history  for  the  young.  The  merchants  kept  in  their 
houses  a picture  of  the  famous  Tao-jo-kung,  who,  by  skill  in  trade, 
accumulated  fortunes  only  to  spend  them  among  his  friends.  On 
February  21st,  they  passed  through  Shang-shen  (or  Shang-chiu  ?), 
where  the  Japanese  gained  a great  victory. 

In  passing  along  the  Nak-tong  River,  they  witnessed  the  an- 
nual trial  of  archery  for  the  military  examinations.  The  targets 
were  straw  mannikins,  set  up  on  boats,  in  the  middle  of  the  river. 
On  March  6th  they  reached  Fusan.  The  Japanese  settlement, 
called  Nippon-maclii,  or  Japan  Street,  was  outside  the  gates  of 
the  town,  a guard-house  being  kept  up  to  keep  the  Japanese 
away.  Only  twice  a year,  on  August  15th  and  16th,  were  they 
allowed  to  leave  their  quarters  to  visit  a temple  in  the  town.  The 
Coreans,  however,  were  free  to  enter  the  Japanese  concession  to 
■visit  or  trade.  The  waifs  were  taken  into  the  house  of  the  daimio 
of  Tsushima,  and  glad,  indeed,  were  they  to  talk  with  a fellow 
countryman.  Sailing  to  Tsushima,  they  were  able  there  to  get 
Japanese  clothes,  and,  on  July  19th,  they  reached  Ozaka,  and 
finally  their  homes  in  Echizen.  One  of  their  number  wrote  out 
an  account  of  his  adventures. 

Among  other  interesting  facts,  he  states  that  he  saw,  hanging 
in  the  palace  at  Peking,  a portrait  of  Yoshitsune,  the  Japanese 
hero,  who,  as  some  of  his  countrymen  believe,  fled  the  country 
and,  landing  in  Manchuria,  became  the  mighty  warrior  Genghis 
Khan.  Whether  mistaken  or  not,  the  note  of  the  Japanese  is  in- 
teresting. 

Mr.  Leon  Pages,  in  his  “ Histoire  de  la  Religion  Chretienne 
au  Japon,”  says  that  these  men  referred  to  above  found  estab- 
lished in  the  capital  a Japanese  commercial  factory,  but  -with  the 
very  severe  restrictions  similar  to  those  imposed  upon  the  Hollan- 
ders at  Deshima.  This  is  evidently  a mistake.  There  was  no  trad- 
ing mart  in  the  capital,  but  there  was,  and  had  been,  one  at 
Fusan,  which  still  exists  in  most  flourishing  condition. 

The  Manchius,  from  the  first,  showed  themselves  “ the  most 
improvable  race  in  Asia.”  In  1707,  under  the  patronage  of  the 


THE  ISSACHAR  OF  EASTERN  ASIA. 


160 


renowned  emperor  Kang  Hi,  the  Jesuits  in  Peking  began  their 
great  geographical  enterprise — the  survey  of  the  Chinese  Empire, 
including  the  outlying  vassal  kingdoms.  From  the  king’s  palace, 
at  Seoul,  Kang  Hi’s  envoy  obtained  a map  of  Corea,  which  was  re- 
duced, drawn,  and  sent  to  Europe  to  be  engraved  and  printed. 
From  this  original,  most  of  the  maps  and  supposed  Corean  names 
in  books,  published  since  that  time,  have  been  copied.  Having 
no  Corean  interpreter  at  hand,  the  Jesuit  cartographers  gave  the 
Chinese  sounds  of  the  characters  which  represent  the  local  names. 
Hence  the  discrepancies  between  this  map  and  the  reports  of  the 
Dutch,  Japanese,  French,  and  American  travellers,  who  give  the 


vernacular  pronunciation.  To  French  genius  and  labor,  from  first 
to  last,  we  owe  most  of  what  is  known  in  Europe  concerning  the 
secluded  nation.  The  Jesuits’  map  is  accurate  as  regards  the  lati- 
tude and  longitude  of  many  places,  but  lacking  in  true  coast  lines. 

While  making  their  surveys,  the  party  of  missionaries,  whose 
assignment  of  the  work  was  to  Eastern  Manchuria,  caught  some- 
thing like  a Pisgah  glimpse  of  the  country  which,  before  a century 
elapsed,  was  to  become  a land  of  promise  to  French  Christianity.  In 
1709,  as  they  looked  across  the  Tumen  River,  they  wrote  : “ It  was  a 
new  sight  to  us  after  we  had  crossed  so  many  forests,  and  coasted 
so  many  frightful  mountains  to  find  ourselves  on  the  banks  of  the 


166 


COREA. 


river  Tumen-ula,  with  nothing  but  woods  and  wild  beasts  on  one 
side,  while  the  other  presented  to  our  view  all  that  art  and  labor 
could  produce  in  the  best  cultivated  kingdoms.  We  there  saw 
walled  cities,  and  placing  our  instruments  on  the  neighboring 
heights,  geometrically  determined  the  location  of  four  of  them, 
which  bounded  Korea  on  the  north.”  The  four  towns  seen  by 
the  Jesuit  surveyors  were  Kion-wen,  On-son,  and  possibly  Kion- 
fun  and  Chon-shon. 

The  Coreans  could  not  understand  the  Tartar  or  Chinese  com- 
panions of  the  Frenchmen,  but,  at  Hun-chun,  they  found  interpre- 
ters, who  told  them  the  names  of  the  Corean  towns.  The  French 
priests  were  exceedingly  eager  and  anxious  to  cross  the  river,  and 
enter  the  land  that  seemed  like  the  enchanted  castle  of  Thornrose, 
but,  being  forbidden  by  the  emperor’s  orders,  they  reluctantly 
turned  their  backs  upon  the  smiling  cities. 

This  was  the  picture  of  the  northern  border  in  1707,  before  it 
was  desolated,  as  it  afterward  was,  so  that  the  Russians  might  not 
be  tempted  to  cross  over.  At  Hun-chun,  on  the  Manchiu,  and 
Kion-wen,  on  the  Corean  side  of  the  river,  once  a year,  alternately, 
that  is,  once  in  two  years,  at  each  place,  a fair  was  held  up  to 
1860,  where  the  Coreans  and  Chinese  merchants  exchanged  goods. 
The  lively  traffic  lasted  only  half  a day,  when  the  nationals  of 
either  country  were  ordered  over  the  border,  and  laggards  were 
hastened  at  the  spear’s  point.  Any  foreigner,  Manchiu,  Chinese, 
or  even  Corean  suspected  of  being  an  alien,  was,  if  found  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Tumen,  at  once  put  to  death  without  shrift  or 
pity.  Thus  the  only  gate  of  parley  with  the  outside  world  on  Co- 
rea’s northern  frontier  resembled  an  embrasure  or  a muzzle. 
When  at  last  the  Cossack  lance  flashed,  and  the  Russian  school- 
house  rose,  and  the  church  spire  glittered  with  steady  radiance 
beyond  the  Tumen,  this  gateway  became  the  terminus  of  that 
“underground  railroad,”  through  which  the  Corean  slave  reached 
his  Canada  beyond,  or  the  Corean  Christian  sought  freedom  from 
torture  and  dungeons  and  death. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


THE  DUTCHMEN  IN  EXILE. 

The  old  saw  which  tells  us  that  “truth  is  stranger  than  fife 
tion  ” receives  many  a new  and  unexpected  confirmation  when- 
ever a traveller  into  strange  countries  comes  hack  to  tell  his  tale. 
Marco  Polo  was  denominated  “ Signor  Milliano  ” (Lord  Millions) 
by  his  incredulous  hearers,  because,  in  speaking  of  China,  he  very 
properly  used  this  lofty  numeral  so  frequently  in  his  narratives. 
Mendez  Pinto,  though  speaking  truthfully  of  Japan’s  wonders, 
was  dubbed  by  a pun  on  his  Christian  name,  the  “Mendacious,” 
because  he  told  what  were  thought  to  be  very  unchristian  stories. 
In  our  own  day,  when  Paul  Du  Chaillu  came  back  from  the 
African  wilds  and  told  of  the  gorilla  which  -walked  upright  like  a 
man,  and  could  dent  a gun-barrel  with  his  teeth,  most  people  be- 
lieved, as  a college  professor  of  belles  lettres,  dropping  elegant 
words  for  the  nonce,  once  stated,  that  “he  bed  like  the  mischief.” 
"When  lo ! the  once  mythic  gorillas  have  come  as  live  guests  at 
Berlin  and  Philadelphia,  while  their  skeletons  are  commonplaces 
in  our  museums.  Even  Stanley’s  African  discoveries  were,  at  first, 
discredited. 

The  first  European  travellers  in  Corea,  who  lived  to  tell  their 
tale  at  home,  met  the  same  fate  as  Polo,  Pinto,  Du  Chaillu,  and 
Stanley.  The  narratives  were  long  doubted,  and  by  some  set  down 
as  pure  fiction.  Like  the  Indian  braves  that  listen  to  Red  Cloud 
and  Spotted  Tail,  who,  in  the  lodges  of  the  plains,  recount  the 
wonders  of  Washington  and  civilization,  the  hearers  are  sure  that 
they  have  taken  “bad  medicine.”  Later  reports  or  personal  ex- 
perience, however,  corroborate  the  first  accounts,  and  by  the  very 
commonplaceness  of  simple  truth  the  first  reports  are  robbed  alike 
of  novelty  and  suspicion. 

The  first  known  entrance  of  any  number  of  Europeans  into 
Corea  was  that  of  Hollanders,  belonging  to  the  crew  of  the  Dutch 
ship  Hollandra,  which  was  driven  ashore  in  1627.  In  those  days 


168 


COREA. 


the  Dutch  were  pushing  their  adventurous  progress  in  the  east- 
ern  seas  as  well  as  on  the  American  waters.  They  had  forts, 
trading  settlements,  or  prosperous  cities  in  Java,  Sumatra,  the 
Spice  Islands,  Formosa,  and  the  ports  of  Southern  Japan.  The 
shores  of  these  archipelagoes  and  continents  being  then  little 
known,  and  slightly  surveyed,  shipwrecks  were  very  frequent. 
The  profits  of  a prosperous  voyage  usually  repaid  all  losses  of 
ships,  though  it  is  estimated  that  three  out  of  five  were  lost.  The 
passage  between  China  and  Japan  and  up  the  seas  south  of  Corea, 
has,  from  ancient  times,  been  difficult,  even  to  a Chinese  proverb. 

A big,  blue-eyed,  red-bearded,  robust  Dutchman,  named  John 
Wetterree,  whose  native  town  was  Rip,  in  North  Holland,  volun- 
teered on  board  the  Dutch  ship  Hollandra  in  1626,  in  order  to 
get  to  Japan.  In  that  wonderful  country,  during  the  previous 
seventeen  years,  his  fellow-countrymen  had  been  trading  and 
making  rich  fortunes,  occasionally  fighting  on  the  seas  with  the 
Portuguese  and  other  buccaneers  of  the  period. 

The  good  ship,  after  a long  voyage  around  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  through  the  Indian  and  Chinese  Seas,  was  almost  in 
sight  of  Japan.  Coasting  along  the  Corean  shores,  Mr.  John 
Wetterree  and  some  companions  went  ashore  to  get  water,  and 
there  were  captured  by  the  natives.  The  Coreans  were  evidently 
quite  willing  to  have  such  a man  at  hand,  for  use  rather  than  orna- 
ment. After  the  Japanese  invasions  a spasm  of  enterprise  in  the 
way  of  fortification,  architecture,  and  development  of  their  mili- 
tary resources  possessed  them,  and  to  have  a big-nosed  and  red- 
bearded  foreigner,  a genuine  “ Nam-ban,”  or  barbarian  of  the 
south,  was  a prize.  To  both  Coreans  and  Japanese,  the  Europeans, 
as  coming  in  ships  from  the  southward,  were  called  “ Southern- 
ers,” or  “Southern  savages.”  Later  on,  after  learning  new  les- 
sons in  geography,  they  called  them  “Westerners,”  or  “Bar- 
barians from  the  West.” 

Like  the  black  potentates  of  Africa,  who  like  to  possess  a white 
man,  believing  him  to  be  a “spirit,”  or  a New  Zealand  chief,  who 
values  the  presence  of  a “ paheka  Maori”  (Englishman),  the  Co- 
reans of  that  day  considered  their  western  “ devil  ” a piece  of  prop- 
erty worth  many  tiger  skins.  It  may  be  remembered — and  the 
Coreans  may  have  borrowed  the  idea  thence — that  the  Japanese, 
then  beginning  their  hermit  policy,  had  also  a white  foreigner  in 
durance  for  their  benefit.  This  was  the  Englishman  Will  Adams, 
who  had  been  a pilot  on  a Dutch  ship  that  sailed  from  the  same 


THE  DUTCHMEN  IN  EXILE. 


169 


Texel  River.  Perhaps  the  boy  Wetterree  had  seen  and  talked 
with  the  doughty  Briton  on  the  wharves  of  the  Dutch  port. 
Adams  served  the  Japanese  as  interpreter,  state  adviser,  ship  ar- 
chitect, mathematician,  and  in  various  useful  ways,  but  was  never 
allowed  to  leave  Japan.  It  is  highly  probable  that  the  ambassadors 
from  Seoul,  while  in  Yedo,  saw  Will  Adams,  since  he  spent  much 
of  his  time  in  public  among  the  officials  and  people,  living  there 
until  May,  1620. 

The  magnates  of  Seoul  probably  desired  to  have  a like  facto- 
tum, and  this  explains  why  Wetterree  was  treated  with  kindness 
and  comparative  honor,  though  kept  as  a prisoner.  When  the 
Manchius  invaded  Corea,  in  1635,  his  two  companions  were  killed 
in  the  wars,  and  Wetterree  was  left  alone.  Having  no  one  with 
whom  he  could  converse,  he  had  almost  forgotten  his  native 
speech,  when  after  twTenty-seven  years  of  exile,  in  the  fifty-ninth 
year  of  his  age,  he  met  some  of  his  fellow-Hollanders  and  acted  as 
interpreter  to  the  Coreans,  under  the  following  circumstances  : 

In  January,  1653,  the  Dutch  ship  Sparwehr  (Sparrowhawk) 
left  Texel  Island,  bound  for  Nagasaki.  Among  the  crew  was 
Hendrik  Hamel,  the  supercargo,  who  afterward  became  the  his- 
torian of  their  adventures.  After  nearly  five  months’  voyage,  they 
reached  Batavia,  June  1st,  and  Formosa  July  16th.  From  this 
island  they  steered  for  Japan,  fortunately  meeting  no  “wild  Chi- 
nese ” or  pirates  on  their  course.  Off  Quelpart  Island,  a dreadful 
storm  arose,  and,  being  close  on  a lee  shore  with  death  staring 
all  in  the  face,  the  captain  ordered  them  “ to  cut  down  the  mast 
and  go  to  their  prayers.”  The  ship  went  to  pieces,  but  thirty-six 
out  of  the  sixty-four  men  composing  the  crew  reached  the  shore 
alive.  The  local  magistrate,  an  elder  of  some  seventy  years  of  age, 
who  knew  a little  Dutch,  met  them  with  his  retainers,  and  learned 
their  plight,  who  they  were,  and  whence  they  came.  The  Hollanders 
were  first  refreshed  with  rice-water.  The  Coreans  then  collected 
the  pieces  of  the  broken  ship,  and  all  they  could  get  from  the 
hulk,  and  burned  them  for  the  sake  of  the  metal.  One  of  the  iron 
articles  happened  to  be  a loaded  cannon,  which  went  off  during 
the  firing.  The  liquor  casks  were  speedily  emptied  into  the  gullets 
of  the  wreckers,  and  the  result  was  a very  noisy  set  of  heathen. 

The  old  leader,  however,  evidently  determined  to  draw  the  line 
between  virtue  and  vice  somewhere.  He  had  several  of  the  thieves 
seized  and  spanked  on  the  spot,  while  others  were  bambooed  on 
the  soles  of  their  feet,  one  so  severely  that  his  toes  dropped  off 


170 


COREA- 


On  October  29th  the  survivors  were  brought  by  the  officials 
to  be  examined  by  the  interpreter  Wetterree.  The  huge  noses, 
the  red  beards  and  white  faces  were  at  once  recognized  by  the 
lone  exile  as  belonging  to  his  own  countrymen.  Wetterree  was 
very  “ rusty  ” in  his  native  language,  after  twenty-seven  years’ 
nearly  complete  disuse,  but  in  company  with  the  new  arrivals  he 
regained  it  all  in  a month. 

Of  course,  the  first  and  last  idea  of  the  captives  was  how  to 
escape.  The  native  fishing-smacks  were  frequently  driven  off  to 
Japan,  which  they  knew  must  be  almost  in  sight.  One  night  they 
made  an  attempt  to  reach  the  sea-shore.  They  at  first  thought 
they  were  secure,  when  the  dogs  betrayed  them  by  barking  and 
alarming  the  guards. 

It  is  evident  that  the  European  body  has  an  odor  entirely  dis- 
tinct from  a Mongolian.  The  Abbe  Hue  states  that  even  when 
travelling  through  Thibet  and  China,  in  disguise,  the  dogs  con- 
tinually barked  at  him  and  almost  betrayed  him,  even  at  night.  In 
travelling,  and  especially  when  living  in  the  Japanese  city  of  Fu- 
kui,  the  writer  had  the  same  experience.  In  walking  through  the 
city  streets  at  night,  even  when  many  hundred  yards  off,  the  Jap- 
anese dogs  would  start  up  barking  and  run  toward  him.  This 
occurred  repeatedly,  when  scores  of  native  pedestrians  were  not 
noticed  by  the  beasts.  The  French  missionaries  in  Corea,  even  in 
disguise,  report  the  same  facts. 

The  baffled  Hollanders  were  caught  and  officially  punished 
after  the  fashion  of  the  nursery,  but  so  severely  that  some  had  to 
keep  their  beds  for  a month,  in  order  to  heal  their  battered  flanks. 
Finally  they  were  ordered  to  proceed  to  the  capital,  which  the 
Dutchmen  call  Sior  (Seoul). 

Hamel  gives  a few  names  of  the  places  through  which  he 
passed.  These  are  in  the  pronunciation  of  the  local  dialect,  and 
written  down  in  Dutch  spelling.  Most  of  them  are  recognizable 
on  the  map,  though  the  real  sound  is  nearly  lost  in  a quagmire  of 
Dutch  letters,  in  which  Hamel  has  attempted  to  note  the  quavers 
and  semi-demi-quavers  of  Corean  enunciation.  He  writes  Coeree 
for  Corea,  and  Tyocen-koeck  for  Cho-sen  kokii,  and  is  probably  the 
first  European  to  mention  Quelpart  Island,  on  which  the  ship  was 
wrecked. 

The  first  city  on  the  mainland  to  which  they  came  was  Heynam 
(Hai-nam),  in  the  extreme  southwest  of  Chulla.  This  was  about  the 
last  of  May.  Thence  they  marched  to  Jeham,  spending  the  night 


THE  DUTCHMEN  IN  EXILE. 


171 


at  Na-diou  (Nai-chiu).  The  gunner  of  the  ship  died  at  Je-ham,  or 
Je-ban.  They  passed  through  San-siang  (Chan-shon),  and  came 
to  Tong-ap  (Chon-wup  ?),  after  crossing  a high  mountain,  on  the 
top  of  which  was  the  spacious  fortress  of  H-pam  San-siang.  The 
term  “ San-siang,”  used  twice  here,  means  a fortified  stronghold 
in  the  mountains,  to  which,  in  time  of  war,  the  neighboring  villa- 
gers may  fly  for  refuge.  Teyn  (Tai-in),  was  the  next  place  arrived 
at,  after  which,  “having  baited  at  the  little  town  of  Kuniga” 
(Ivumku),  they  reached  Khin-tyo  (Chon-chiu),  where  the  governor 
of  Chillado  (Chulla  do)  resided.  This  city,  though  a hundred  miles 
from  the  sea,  was  very  famous,  and  was  a seat  of  great  traffic. 
After  this,  they  came  to  the  last  town  of  the  province,  Jesan,  and, 
passing  through  Gunun  and  Jensan,  reached  Konsio  (Kong-chiu), 
the  capital  of  Chung-chong  province.  They  reached  the  border  of 
Kiung-kei  by  a rapid  march,  and,  after  crossing  a wide  river  (the 
Han),  they  traversed  a league,  and  entered  Sior  (Seoul).  They 
computed  the  length  of  the  journey  at  seventy-five  leagues.  This, 
by  a rough  reckoning,  is  about  the  distance  from  Hainarn  to  Seoul, 
as  may  be  seen  from  the  map. 

In  the  capital,  as  they  had  been  along  the  road,  the  Dutchmen 
were  like  wild  beasts  on  show.  Crowds  flocked  to  see  the  white- 
faced and  red-bearded  foreigners.  They  must  have  appeared  to 
the  natives  as  Punch  looks  to  English  children.  The  women  were 
even  more  anxious  than  the  men  to  get  a good  look.  Every  one 
was  especially  curious  to  see  the  Dutchmen  drink,  for  it  was  gen- 
erally believed  that  they  tucked  their  noses  up  over  their  ears 
when  they  drank.  The  size  and  prominence  of  the  nasal  organ  of 
a Caucasian  first  strikes  a Turanian  with  awe  and  fear.  Thou- 
sands of  people  no  doubt  learned,  for  the  first  time,  that  the  west- 
ern “devils”  were  men  after  all,  and  ate  decent  food  and  not 
earthworms  and  toads.  Some  of  the  women,  so  Hamel  flattered 
himself,  even  went  so  far  as  to  admire  the  fair  complexions  and 
ruddy  cheeks  of  the  Dutchmen.  At  the  palace,  the  king  (Yo- 
chong,  who  reigned  from  1648  to  1658)  improved  the  opportunity 
for  a little  fun.  It  was  too  good  a show  not  to  see  how  the  ani- 
mals could  perform.  The  Dutchmen  laughed,  sang,  danced,  leaped, 
and  went  through  miscellaneous  performances  for  His  Majesty’s 
benefit.  For  this  they  were  rewarded  with  choice  drink  and 
refreshments.  They  were  then  assigned  to  the  body-guard  of 
the  king  as  petty  officers,  and  an  allowance  of  rice  was  set  apart 
for  their  maintenance.  Chinese  and  Dutchmen  drilled  and  com- 


172 


COREA. 


manded  tlie  palace  troops,  who  were  evidently  the  flower  of  the 
army.  During  their  residence  at  the  capital  the  Hollanders 
learned  many  things  about  the  country  and  people,  and  began  to 
be  able  to  talk  in  the  “Coresian”  language. 

The  ignorance  and  narrowness  of  the  Coreans  were  almost  in- 
credible. They  could  not  believe  what  the  captives  told  them  of 
the  size  of  the  earth.  “How  could  it  be  possible,”  said  they,  in 
sneering  incredulity,  “ that  the  sun  can  shine  on  all  the  many 
countries  you  tell  us  of  at  once?”  Thinking  the  foreigners  told 
exaggerated  lies,  they  fancied  that  the  “ countries  ” were  only 
counties  and  the  “ cities  ” villages.  To  them  Corea  was  very  near 
the  centre  of  the  earth,  which  was  China. 

The  cold  was  very  severe.  In  November  the  river  was  frozen 
over,  and  three  hundred  loaded  horses  passed  over  it  on  the  ice. 

After  they  had  been  in  Seoul  three  years,  the  “Tartar”  (Man- 
chiu)  ambassador  visited  Seoul,  but  before  his  arrival  the  captives 
were  sent  away  to  a fort,  distant  six  or  seven  leagues,  to  be  kept 
until  the  ambassador  left,  which  he  did  in  March.  This  fort  stood 
on  a mountain,  called  Numma,  which  required  three  hours  to 
ascend.  In  time  of  war  the  king  sought  shelter  within  it,  and  it 
was  kept  provisioned  for  three  years.  Hamel  does  not  state  why 
he  and  his  companions  were  sent  away,  but  it  was  probably  to  con- 
ceal the  fact  that  foreigners  were  drilling  the  royal  troops.  The 
suspicions  of  the  new  rulers  at  Peking  were  easily  roused. 

When  the  Manchiu  envoy  was  about  to  leave  Seoul,  some  of 
the  prisoners  determined  to  put  in  execution  a plan  of  escape. 
They  put  on  Dutch  clothes,  under  their  Corean  dress,  and  awaited 
their  opportunity.  As  the  envoy  was  on  the  road  about  to  depart, 
some  of  them  seized  the  bridle  of  his  horse,  and  displaying  their 
Dutch  clothing,  begged  him  to  take  them  to  Peking.  The  plan 
ended  in  failure.  The  Dutchmen  were  seized  and  thrown  into 
prison.  Nothing  more  was  ever  heard  of  them,  and  it  was  believed 
by  their  companions  that  they  had  been  put  to  death.  This  was 
in  March. 

In  June  there  was  another  shipwreck  off  Quelpart  Island,  and 
Wetterree  being  now  too  old  to  make  the  journey,  three  of  the 
Hollanders  were  sent  to  act  as  interpreters.  Hamel  does  not  give 
us  the  result  of  their  mission. 

The  Manchiu  ambassador  came  again  to  Seoul  in  August. 
The  nobles  urged  the  king  to  put  the  Hollanders  to  death,  and 
have  no  more  trouble  with  them.  His  Majesty  refused,  but.  sent 


THE  DUTCHMEN  IN  EXILE. 


173 


them  back  into  Cliulla,  allowing  them  each  fifty  pounds  of  rice  a 
month  for  their  support 

They  set  out  from  Seoul  in  March,  1657,  on  horseback,  passing 
through  the  same  towns  as  on  their  former  journey.  Reaching 
the  castle-city  of  “ Diu-siong,”  they  were  joined  by  their  three 
comrades  sent  to  investigate  the  wreck  at  Quelpart,  which  made 
their  number  thirty-three.  Their  chief  occupation  was  that  of 
keeping  the  castle  and  official  residence  in  order — an  easy  and 
congenial  duty  for  the  neat  and  order-loving  Dutchmen. 

Hamel  learned  many  of  the  ideas  of  the  natives.  They  repre- 
sented their  country  as  in  the  form  of  a long  square,  “ in  shape  like 
a playing-card  ” — perhaps  the  Dutchmen  had  a pack  with  them  to 
beguile  the  tedium  of  their  exile.  Certain  it  is  that  they  still  kept 
the  arms  and  flag  of  Orange,  to  be  used  again. 

The  exiles  were  not  treated  harshly,  though  in  one  case,  after 
a change  of  masters,  the  new  magistrate  “ afflicted  them  with 
fresh  crosses.”  This  “rotation  in  office  ” was  evidently  on  account 
of  the  change  on  the  throne.  To-chong  ceased  to  reign  in  1658, 
and  “a  new  king  arose  who  knew  not  Joseph.”  Yen-chong  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  reigning  from  1658  to  1676. 

Two  large  comets  appearing  in  the  sky  with  their  tails  toward 
each  other,  frightened  the  Coreans,  and  created  intense  alarm. 
The  army  was  ordered  out,  the  guards  were  doubled,  and  no  fires 
were  allowed  to  be  kindled  along  the  coast,  lest  they  might  attract 
or  guide  invaders  or  a hostile  force.  In  the  last  few  decades, 
comets  had  appeared,  said  the  Coreans,  and  in  each  case  they  had 
presaged  war.  In  the  first,  the  Japanese  invasions  from  the  east, 
and,  in  the  second,  the  Manchius  from  the  west.  They  anxiously 
asked  the  Dutchmen  how  comets  were  regarded  in  Holland,  and 
probably  received  some  new  ideas  in  astronomy.  No  war,  how- 
ever, followed,  and  the  innocent  comets  gradually  shrivelled  up 
out  of  sight,  without  shaking  out  of  their  fiery  hair  either  pesti- 
lence or  war. 

The  Dutchmen  saw  many  whales  blowing  off  the  coast,  and  in 
December  shoals  of  herring  rushed  by,  keeping  up  an  increasing 
stream  of  life  until  January,  when  it  slackened,  and  in  March 
ceased.  The  whales  made  sad  havoc  in  these  shoals,  gorging 
themselves  on  the  small  fry.  These  are  the  herring  which  arrive 
off  the  coast  of  Wliang-hai,  and  feed  on  the  banks  and  shoals  dur- 
ing the  season.  The  catching  of  them  affords  lucrative  employ- 
ment to  hundreds  of  junks  from  North  China. 


174 


COREA. 


From  their  observations,  the  Dutchmen  argued — one  hundred 
and  twenty  years  before  La  Perouse  demonstrated  the  fact — that 
there  must  be  a strait  north  of  Corea,  connecting  with  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  like  that  of  Waigats  (now  called  the  Strait  of  Kara),  be- 
tween Nova  Zemla  and  the  island  lying  off  the  northwestern  end 
of  Russia.  They  thus  conjectured  the  existence  of  the  Straits  of 
Tartary,  west  of  Saglialin,  before  they  appeared  on  any  European 
map.  Waigats  was  discovered  by  the  Englishman,  Stephen  Bur- 
roughs, who  had  been  sent  out  by  the  Muscovy  company  to  find  a 
northwest  passage  to  China.  Their  mention  of  it  shows  that  they 
were  familiar  with  the  progress  of  polar  research,  since  it  was  dis- 
covered in  1556,  only  seven  years  before  they  left  Holland.  It 
had  even  at  that  time,  however,  become  a famous  hunting-place 
for  whalers  and  herring  fishers. 

These  marine  studies  of  the  captives,  coupled  with  the  fact  that 
they  had  before  attempted  to  escape,  may  have  aroused  the  suspi- 
cions of  the  government.  In  February,  1663,  by  orders  from  Seoul, 
they  were  separated  and  put  in  three  different  towns.  Twelve 
went  to  “ Saysiano,”  five  to  Siun-schien,  and  five  to  Namman,  their 
numbers  being  now  reduced  to  twenty-two.  Two  of  these  places 
are  easily  found  on  the  Japanese  map.  During  all  the  years  of 
their  captivity,  they  seem  not  to  have  known  anything  of  the  Jap- 
anese at  Fusan,  nor  the  latter  of  them. 

Though  thus  scattered,  the  men  were  occasionally  allowed  to 
visit  each  other,  which  they  did,  enjoying  each  other’s  society, 
sweetened  with  pipes  and  tobacco,  and  Hamel  devoutly  adds  that 
“ it  was  a great  mercy  of  God  that  they  enjoyed  good  health.”  A 
new  governor  having  been  appointed  over  them,  evidently  was  pos- 
sessed with  the  idea  of  testing  the  skill  of  the  bearded  foreigners, 
with  a view  of  improving  the  art  productions  of  the  country.  He 
set  the  Dutchmen  to  work  at  moulding  clay — perhaps  to  have  some 
pottery  and  tiles  after  Dutch  patterns,  and  the  Delft  system  of 
illustrating  the  Bible  at  the  fireplace.  This  was  so  manifestly 
against  the  national  policy  of  making  no  improvements  on  any- 
thing, that  the  poor  governor  lost  his  place  and  suffered  punish- 
ment. The  spies  informed  on  him  to  the  king.  An  explosion  of 
power  took  place,  the  ex-govemor  received  ninety  strokes  on  his 
shin-bones,  and  was  disgraced  from  rank  and  office.  The  quon- 
dam improvers  of  the  ceramic  art  of  Corea  were  again  set  to  work 
at  pulling  up  grass  and  other  menial  duties  about  the  official  resi- 
dence. 


THE  DUTCHMEN  IN  EXILE. 


175 


As  the  years  passed  on,  the  poor  exiles  were  in  pitiful  straits. 
Their  clothing  had  been  worn  to  tatters,  and  they  were  reduced 
even  to  beggary.  They  were  accustomed  to  go  off  in  companies 
to  seek  alms  of  the  people,  for  two  or  three  weeks  at  a time. 
Those  left  at  home,  during  these  trips,  worked  at  various  odd  jobs 
to  earn  a pittance,  especially  at  making  arrows.  The  next  year, 
1661,  was  somewhat  easier  for  them,  their  overseer  being  kind 
and  gentle ; but,  in  1665,  the  homesick  fellows  tried  hard  to 
escape.  In  1666,  they  lost  their  benefactor,  the  good  governor. 
Now  came  the  time  for  flight. 

All  possible  preparations  were  made,  in  the  way  of  hoarding 
provisions,  getting  fresh  water  ready,  and  studying  well  the  place 
of  exit.  They  waited  for  the  sickness  or  absence  of  their  overseer, 
to  slacken  the  vigilance  of  their  guards. 

In  the  latter  part  of  August,  or  early  in  September,  1667,  as  the 
fourteenth  year  of  their  captivity  was  drawing  to  a close,  the  gov- 
ernor fell  sick.  The  Dutchmen,  taking  time  by  the  forelock,  im- 
mediately, as  soon  as  dark,  on  the  night  of  September  4tli,  climbed 
the  city  wall,  and  reaching  the  seaside  succeeded,  after  some  par- 
leying, in  getting  a boat.  “A  Corean,  blinded  by  the  offer  of 
double  the  value  of  it,”  sold  them  his  fishing  craft.  They  returned 
again  to  the  city.  At  night  they  crept  along  the  city  wall,  and 
this  time  the  dogs  were  asleep,  absent,  or  to  windward,  though 
the  Dutchmen’s  hearts  were  in  their  mouths  all  the  time.  They 
earned  pots  of  rice  and  water,  and  that  darling  of  a Dutchman— 
the  frying-pan.  Noiselessly  they  slipped  the  wood  and  stone 
anchor,  and  glided  out  past  the  junks  and  boats  in  the  harbor, 
none  of  the  crews  waking  from  their  mats. 

They  steered  directly  southeast,  and  on  the  6th  found  them- 
selves in  a current  off’  the  Goto  Islands.  They  succeeded  in  land- 
ing, and  cooked  some  food.  Not  long  after,  some  armed  natives 
(probably  from  the  lingering  influence  of  the  comet)  approached 
them  cautiously,  as  the  Japanese  feared  they  were  Coreans,  and 
forerunners  of  an  invading  band. 

Hamel  at  once  pulled  out  their  flag,  having  the  arms  and  colors 
of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  Surrendering  themselves,  they  stated  their 
history,  and  condition,  and  their  desire  of  getting  home.  The 
Japanese  were  kind,  “ but  made  no  return  for  the  gifts  ” of  the 
Dutchmen.  They  finally  got  to  Nagasaki  in  Japanese  junks,  and 
met  their  countrymen  at  D6shima.  The  annual  ship  from  Batavia 
was  then  just  about  to  return,  and  in  the  nick  of  time  the  waifs 


176 


COREA. 


got  on  board,  reached  Batavia  November  20tli,  sailed  for  Holland 
December  28th,  and  on  July  20,  1668,  stepped  ashore  at  home. 

Hamel,  the  supercargo  of  the  ship,  wrote  a book  on  his  return, 
recounting  his  adventures  in  a simple  and  straightforward  style. 
It  was  written  in  Dutch  and  shortly  after  translated  into  French, 
German,  and  English.  Four  editions  in  Dutch  are  known.  The 
English  version  may  be  found  in  full  in  the  Astley,  and  in  the 
Pinkerton,  Collections  of  Voyages  and  Travels. 

The  French  translator  indulges  in  skepticism  concerning 
Hamel’s  narrative,  questioning  especially  his  geographical  state- 
ments. Before  a map  of  Corea,  with  the  native  sounds  even  but 
approximated,  it  will  be  seen  that  Hamel’s  story  is  a piece  ot 
downright  unembroidered  truth.  It  is  indeed  to  be  regretted  that 
this  actual  observer  of  Corean  life,  people,  and  customs  gave  us  so 
little  information  concerning  them. 

The  fate  of  the  other  survivors  of  the  Sparrowhawk  crew  was 
never  known.  Perhaps  it  never  will  be  learned,  as  it  is  not  likely 
that  the  Coreans  would  take  any  pains  to  mark  the  site  of  their 
graves.  Yet  as  the  tomb  of  Will  Adams  was  found  in  Japan,  by  a 
reader  of  Hildreth’s  book,  so  perhaps  some  inquiring  foreigner  in 
Corea  may  discover  the  site  of  the  graves  of  these  exiles,  and  mark 
their  resting-places. 

There  is  no  improbability  in  supposing  that  other  missing 
vessels,  previous  to  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
shared  the  fate  of  the  Sparrowhawk.  The  wrecks,  burned  for  the 
sake  of  the  iron,  w'ould  leave  no  trace  ; while  perhaps  many  ship- 
WTecked  men  have  pined  in  captivity,  and  dying  lonely  in  a 
strange  land  have  been  put  in  unmarked  graves. 

At  this  point,  we  bring  to  an  end  our  sketch  of  the  ancient 
and  mediaeval  history  of  Corea.  Until  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity into  the  peninsula,  the  hermit  nation  wras  uninfluenced  by 
any  ideas  which  the  best  modern  life  claims  as  its  own.  As  with 
the  whole  world,  so  with  its  tiny  fraction  Corea,  the  door  of  ancient 
history'  shut,  and  the  gate  of  modern  history  opened,  when  the 
religion  of  Jesus  moved  the  hearts  and  minds  of  men.  We  now 
glance  at  the  geography,  politics,  social  life,  and  religion  of  the 
Coreans ; after  wdiich  we  shall  narrate  the  story  of  their  national 
life  from  the  implanting  of  Christianity  until  their  rivulet  of  his- 
tory flowed  into  the  stream  of  the  world’s  history. 


IL 

POLITICAL  AND 


SOCIAL 


COREA 


POLITICAL  AKD  SOCIAL  COREA. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 

PING-AN,  OR  THE  PACIFIC. 

This  province  bears  the  not  altogether  appropriate  name  of 
Peaceful  Quiet.  It  is  the  border  land  of  the  kingdom,  containing 
what  was  for  centuries  the  only  acknowledged  gate  of  entrance 
and  outlet  to  the  one  neighbor  which  Corea  willingly  acknowl- 
edged as  her  superior.  It  contains,  probably,  the  largest  area  of 
any  province,  unless  it  be  Ham-kiung.  Its  northern,  and  a great 
part  of  its  western,  frontier  is  made  by  the  Yalu  River,  called  also 
the  Ap-nok,  the  former  name  referring  to  its  sinuous  course,  mean- 
ing “dragon’s  windings,”  and  the  latter  after  its  deep  green  color. 

The  Yalu  is  the  longest  river  in  Corea.  Its  source  is  found 
near  the  40th  parallel.  Flowing  northwardly,  for  about  eighty 
miles,  the  stream  forms  the  boundary  between  Ping-an  and  Ham- 
kiung.  Then,  turning  to  the  westward,  it  receives  on  the  Manchu- 
rian side  twelve  tributaries,  which  run  down  the  gorges  of  the 
Ever- White  Mountains.  Each  of  these  streams  is  named,  begin- 
ning westwardly,  after  the  numerals  of  arithmetic.  The  waters  of 
so  many  valleys  on  the  west,  as  well  as  on  the  north  and  east, 
emptying  into  the  YTalu,  make  it,  in  spring  and  fall,  a turbulent 
stream,  which  sinuates  like  the  writhing  of  a dragon  ; whence  its 
name.  In  the  summer,  its  waters  are  beautifully  clear,  and  blue 
or  green — the  Coreans  having  no  word  to  distinguish  between 
these  two  colors.  It  empties  by  three  mouths  into  the  Yellow 
Sea,  its  deltas,  or  islands,  being  completely  submerged  during  the 
melting  of  the  snows.  It  is  easily  navigable  for  junks  to  the  town 
of  Chan-son,  a noted  trading  place,  sixty  miles  from  the  sea.  The 


180 


COREA. 


valley  of  the  Yalu  is  extremely  fertile,  and  well  wooded,  and  the 
scenery  is  superb.  Its  navigation  was  long  interdicted  to  the  Chi- 
nese, but  steamers  and  gunboats  have  entered  it,  and  access  to  the 
fertile  valley  and  the  trade  of  the  region  will  be  gained  by  other 
nations.  The  Tong-kia  River  drains  the  neutral  strip. 

The  town  nearest  the  frontier,  and  the  gateway  of  the  king- 
dom, is  Ai-chiu.  It  is  situated  on  a hill  overlooking  the  river,  and 
surrounded  by  a wall  of  light-colored  stone.  The  annual  embassy 
always  departed  for  its  overland  journey  to  China  through  its 
gates.  Here  also  are  the  custom-house  and  vigilant  guards,  whose 
cliief  business  it  was  to  scrutinize  all  persons  entering  or  leaving 
Corea  by  the  high  road,  which  traverses  the  town.  A line  of  pa- 
trols and  guard-houses  picketed  the  river  along  a length  of  over  a 
hundred  miles. 

Nevertheless,  most  of  the  French  missionaries  have  entered 
the  mysterious  peninsula  through  this  loophole,  disguising  them- 
selves as  wood-cutters,  crossing  the  Yalu  River  on  the  ice,  creeping 
through  the  water-drains  iu  the  granite  wall,  and  passing  through 
this  town.  Or  they  have  been  met  by  friends  at  appointed  places 
along  the  border,  and  thence  have  travelled  to  the  capital. 

Through  this  exit  also,  Corea  sent  to  Peking  or  Mukden  the 
waifs  and  sailors  cast  on  her  shores.  A number  of  shipwrecked 
Americans,  after  kind  treatment  at  the  hands  of  the  Coreans,  have 
thus  reached  their  homes  by  way  of  Mukden.  This  prosperous  city, 
having,  a population  of  over  two  hundred  thousand  souls,  and 
noted  for  its  manufactures,  especially  in  metal,  is  the  capital  of 
the  Chinese  province  of  Shing-king,  formerly  Liao  Tong.  It  is 
surrounded  by  a long  wall  pierced  with  eight  gates,  one  of  which 
— that  to  the  northeast — is  called  “the  Corean  Gate.”  Niu- 
chwang  has  also  a “Corean  Gate.” 

Fifty  miles  beyond  the  Corean  frontier  is  the  “Border  Gate” 
(Pien-mun),  at  which  there  was  a fair  held  three  or  four  times  a 
year,  the  chief  markets  being  at  the  exit  and  return  of  the  Corean 
embassy  to  China.  The  value  of  the  products  here  sold  annually 
averaged  over  five  hundred  thousand  dollars.  In  the  central  apart- 
ment of  a building  inhabited  at  either  end  by  Chinese  and  Corean 
mandarins  respectively,  the  customs-officers  sat  to  collect  taxes  on 
the  things  bartered.  The  Corean  merchants  were  obliged  to  pay 
“ bonus  ” or  tribute  of  about  four  hundred  dollars  to  the  manda- 
rin of  Fung-wang  Chang,  the  nearest  Chinese  town,  who  came  in 
person  to  open  the  gates  of  the  building  for  the  spring  fair.  For 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


181 


tlie  privilege  of  the  two  autumn  fairs,  the  Coreans  were  mulcted 
but  half  the  sum,  as  the  gates  were  then  opened  by  an  underling 


Manchiu  official.  The  winter  fair  was  but  of  slight  importance. 
For  the  various  Chinese  goods,  and  European  cottons,  the  Coreans 


182 


COREA. 


bartered  their  furs,  hides,  gold  dust,  ginseng,  and  the  mulberry 
paper  used  by  Chinese  tailors  for  linings,  and  for  windows. 

Ping-an  has  the  reputation  of  being  very  rich  in  mineral  and 
metallic  wealth.  Gold  and  silver  by  report  abound,  but  the  na- 
tives are  prohibited  by  the  government  from  working  the  mines. 
The  neutrality  of  the  strip  of  territory,  sixty  miles  wide  and  about 
three  hundred  miles  long,  and  drained  by  the  Tong-kia  River, 
between  Cho-sen  and  Chin,  was  respected  by  the  Chinese  gov- 
ernment until  1875,  when  Li  Hung  Chung,  on  complaint  of  the 
king  of  Corea,  made  a descent  on  the  Manchiu  outlaws  and  squat- 
ters settled  on  the  strip.  Having  despatched  a force  of  troops, 
with  gunboats  up  the  Yalu,  to  co-operate  with  them,  he  found  the 
region  overspread  with  cultivators.  The  eyes  of  the  viceroy  being 
opened  to  the  fertility  of  this  land,  and  the  navigability  of  the 
river,  he  proposed,  in  a memorial  to  Peking,  that  the  land  be  incor- 
porated in  the  Chinese  domain,  but  that  a wall  and  ditch  be  built 
to  isolate  Corea,  and  that  all  Chinese  trespassers  on  Corean  ground 
be  handed  over  to  the  mandarins  to  be  sent  prisoners  to  Mukden, 
and  to  be  there  beheaded,  while  Chinese  resisting  capture  should 
be  lawfully  slain  by  Coreans.  To  this  the  Seoul  government 
agreed.  By  this  clever  diplomacy  the  Chinese  gained  back  a 
huge  slice  of  valuable  land,  probably  without  the  labor  of  digging 
ditches  or  building  palisades.  The  old  wall  of  stakes  still  remains, 
in  an  extremely  dilapidated  condition.  Off  the  coast  are  a few 
islands,  and  a number  of  shallow  banks,  around  which  shell-  and 
scale-fish  abound.  Chinese  junks  come  in  fleets  every  year  in  the 
fishing  season,  but  their  presence  is  permitted  only  on  condition 
of  their  never  setting  foot  on  shore.  In  reality  much  contraband 
trade  is  done  by  the  smugglers  along  the  coast.  A group  of  isl- 
ands near  the  mouth  was  long  the  nest  of  Chinese  pirates,  but 
these  have  been  broken  up  by  Li  Hung  Chang’s  gunboats.  Next 
to  the  Yalu,  the  most  important  river  of  the  province  is  the  Ta- 
tong  or  Ping-an,  which  discharges  a great  volume  of  fresh  water 
annually  into  the  sea.  A number  of  large  towns  and  cities  are 
situated  on  or  near  its  batiks,  and  the  high  road  follows  the  course 
of  the  river.  It  is  the  Rubicon  of  Cho-sen  history,  and  at  various 
epochs  in  ancient  times  was  the  boundary  river  of  China,  or  of 
the  rival  states  within  the  peninsula.  About  fifty  miles  from  its 
mouth  is  the  city  of  Ping-an,  the  metropolis  of  the  province,  and 
the  royal  seat  of  authority,  from  before  the  Christian  era,  to  the 
tenth  century.  Its  situation  renders  it  a natural  stronghold.  It 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


183 


has  been  many  times  besieged  by  Chinese  and  Japanese  armies, 
and  near  it  many  battles  have  been  fought.  “ The  General  Sher- 
man affair,”  in  1866,  in  which  the  crew  of  the  American  schooner 
were  murdered — which  occasioned  the  sending  of  the  United 
States  naval  expedition  in  1871 — took  place  in  front  of  the  city  of 
Ping-an.  Commander  J.  C.  Febiger,  in  the  U.  S.  S.  Shenandoah, 
visited  the  mouths  of  the  river  in  1869,  and  while  vainly  waiting 
for  the  arrest  of  the  murderers,  surveyed  the  inlet,  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  “ Shenandoah.” 

By  official  enumeration,  Ping-an  contains  293,400  houses,  and 
the  muster-rolls  give  174,538  as  the  number  of  men  capable  of 
military  duty.  The  governor  resides  at  Ping-an. 

There  is  considerable  diversity  of  character  between  the  in- 
habitants of  the  eight  provinces.  Those  of  the  two  most  north- 
ern, particularly  of  Ping-an,  are  more  violent  in  temper  than  the 
other  provincials.  Very  few  nobles  or  official  dignitaries  live 
among  them,  hence  very  few  of  the  refinements  of  the  capital  are 
to  be  found  there.  They  are  not  over  loyal  to  the  reigning  dy- 
nasty, and  are  believed  to  cherish  enmity  against  it.  The  govern- 
ment keeps  vigilant  watch  over  them,  repressing  the  first  show  of 
insubordination,  lest  an  insurrection  difficult  to  quell  should  once 
gain  headway.  It  is  from  these  provinces  that  most  of  the  refugees 
into  Kussian  territory  come.  It  was  among  these  men  that  the 
“ General  Sherman  affair  ” took  place,  and  it  is  highly  probable 
that  even  if  the  regent  were  really  desirous  of  examining  into  the 
outrage,  he  was  afraid  to  do  so,  when  the  strong  public  sentiment 
was  wholly  on  the  side  of  the  murderers  of  the  Sherman’s  crew. 

THE  YELLOW-SEA  PROVINCE. 

All  the  eight  circuits  into  which  Cho-sen  is  divided  are  mari- 
time provinces,  but  this  is  the  only  one  which  takes  its  name  from 
the  body  of  water  on  which  its  borders  lie,  jutting  out  into  the 
Whang-hai,  or  Yellow  Sea,  its  extreme  point  lies  nearest  to  Shan- 
tung promontory  in  China.  Its  coast  line  exceeds  its  land  fron- 
tiers. In  the  period  anterior  to  the  Christian  era,  Whang-hai,  was 
occupied  by  the  tribes  called  the  Mahan,  and  from  the  second  to 
the  sixth  century,  by  the  kingdom  of  Hiaksai.  It  has  been  the 
camping-ground  of  the  armies  of  many  nations.  Here,  besides 
the  border  forays  which  engaged  the  troops  of  the  rival  kingdoms, 
the  Japanese,  Chinese,  Mongols,  and  Manchius,  have  contended 


184 


COREA. 


for  victory  again  and  again.  The  ravages  of  war,  added  to  a some- 
what  sterile  soil,  are  the  causes  of  Whang-hai  being  the  least 
populated  province  of  the  eight  in  the  peninsula.  From  very  an- 
cient times  the  Corean  peninsula  has  been  renowned  for  its  pearls. 
These  are  of  superior  lustre  and  great  size.  Even  before  the 
Christian  era,  when  the  people  lived  in  caves  and  mud  huts,  and 
before  they  had  horses  or  cattle,  the  barbaric  inhabitants  of  this 
region  wore  necklaces  of  pearls,  and  sewed  them  on  their  cloth- 
ing, row  upon  row.  They  amazed  the  invading  hordes  of  the 
Han  dynasty,  with  such  incongruous  mixture  of  wealth  and  sav- 
agely ; as  the  Indians,  careless  of  the  yellow  dust,  surprised  by 
their  indifference  to  it  the  gold-greedy  warriors  of  Balboa.  Later 
on,  the  size  and  brilliancy  of  Corean  pearls  became  famous  all 
over  China.  They  were  largely  exported.  The  Chinese  merchant 
braved  the  perils  of  the  sea,  and  of  life  among  the  rude  Co- 
reans,  to  win  lustrous  gems  of  great  price,  which  he  bartered 
when  at  home  for  sums  which  made  him  quickly  rich.  In  the 
twelfth  century  the  fame  of  these  “Eastern  pearls,”  as  they  were 
then  called,  and  which  outrivalled  even  those  from  the  Tonquin 
fisheries,  became  the  cause  of  an  attempted  conquest  of  the  penin- 
sula, the  visions  of  wealth  acting  as  a lure  to  the  would-be  inva- 
ders. It  may  even  be  that  the  Corean  pearl  fisheries  were  known  by 
fame  to  the  story-tellers  of  the  “Arabian  Nights  Entertainments.” 
Much  of  the  mystic  philosophy  of  China  concerning  pearls  is  held 
also  by  the  Coreans.  The  Corean  Elysium  is  a lake  of  pearls.  In 
burying  the  dead,  those  who  can  afford  it,  fill  the  mouth  of  the 
corpse  with  three  pearls,  which,  if  large,  will,  it  is  believed,  pre- 
serve the  dead  body  from  decay.  This  emblem  of  three  flashing 
pearls,  is  much  in  vogue  in  native  art.  The  gems  are  found  on 
the  banks  lying  off  the  coast  of  this  province,  as  well  as  in  the 
archipelago  to  the  south,  and  at  Quelpart.  The  industry  is,  at 
present,  utterly  neglected.  The  pearls  are  kept,  but  no  use  seems 
to  be  made  of  the  brilliant  nacre  of  the  mussel-shells,  which  are 
exported  to  Japan,  to  be  used  in  inlaying. 

More  valuable  to  the  modem  people  than  the  now  almost  aban- 
doned pearl  mussel-beds,  are  the  herring  fisheries,  which,  during 
the  season,  attract  fleets  of  junks  and  thousands  of  fishermen  from 
the  northern  coast  provinces  of  China.  Opposite,  at  a distance  of 
about  eighty  miles  as  the  crow  flies,  measuring  from  land’s  end  to 
land’s  end,  is  the  populous  province  of  Shantung,  or  “ Country 
east  of  the  moun tains.”  On  the  edge  of  this  promontory  are  the 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


185 


cities  of  Chifu  and  Teng  Chow,  while  further  to  the  east  is  Tien- 
tsin, the  seaport  of  Peking.  From  the  most  ancient  times,  Chi- 
nese armadas  have  sailed,  and  invading  armies  have  embarked  for 
Corea  from  these  ports.  Over  and  over  again  has  the  river  Ta- 
tong  been  crowded  with  fleets  of  junks,  fluttering  the  dragon-ban- 
ners at  their  peaks.  From  the  Shantung  headlands,  also,  Chinese 
pirates  have  sailed  over  to  the  tempting  coasts  and  green  islands 
of  Corea,  to  ravage,  bum,  and  kill.  To  guard  against  these  inva- 
ders, and  to  notify  the  arrival  of  foreigners,  signal  fires  are  lighted 
on  the  hill-tops,  which  form  a cordon  of  flame  and  speed  the  alarm 
from  coast  to  capital  in  a few  hours.  These  pyrographs  or  fire 


signals  are  called  “Pong-wa.”  At  Mok-mie'  san,  a mountain  south 
of  the  capital,  the  fire-messages  of  the  three  southern  provinces 
are  received.  By  day,  instead  of  the  pillars  of  fire,  are  clouds  of 
smoke,  made  by  heaping  wet  chopped  straw  or  rice-husks  on  the 
blaze.  Instantly  a dense  white  column  rises  in  the  air,  which,  to 
the  sentinels  from  peak  to  peak,  is  eloquent  of  danger.  In  more 
peaceful  times,  Corean  timber  has  been  largely  exported  to  Chifu, 
and  tribute-bearing  ships  have  sailed  over  to  Tientsin.  The  Chi- 
nese fishermen  usually  appear  off  the  coast  of  this  province  in  the 
third  month,  or  April,  remaining  until  June,  when  their  white 
sails,  bent  homeward,  sink  from  the  gaze  of  the  vigilant  sentinels 


ISO 


COREA. 


on  the  hills,  who  watch  continually  lest  the  Chinese  set  foot  on 
shore.  This  they  are  forbidden  to  do  on  pain  of  death.  In  spite 
of  the  vigilance  of  the  soldiers,  however,  a great  deal  of  smuggling 
is  done  at  night,  between  the  Coreans  and  Chinese  boatmen,  at 
this  time,  and  the  French  missionaries  have  repeatedly  passed  the 
barriers  of  this  forbidden  land  by  disembarking  from  Chifu  junks 
off  this  coast.  The  island  of  Merin  (Merin-to)  has,  on  several 
occasions,  been  trodden  by  the  feet  of  priests  who  afterward 
became  martyrs.  At  one  time,  in  June,  1865,  four  Frenchmen  en- 
tered “ the  lion’s  den  ” from  this  rendezvous.  There  is  a great 
bank  of  sand  and  many  islands  off  the  coast,  the  most  important 
of  the  latter  being  the  Sir  James  Hall  group,  which  was  visited, 
in  1816,  by  Captains  Maxwell  and  Hall,  in  the  ships  Lyra  and  Al- 
ceste.  These  forest-clad  and  well-cultivated  islands  wrere  named 
after  the  president  of  the  Edinburgh  Geographical  Society,  the 
father  of  the  gallant  sailor  and  lively  author  who  drove  the  first 
British  keel  through  the  unknown  waters  of  the  Yellow  Sea.  East- 
ward from  this  island  cluster  is  a large  bay  and  inlet  near  the  head 
of  which  is  the  fortified  city  of  Chan-yon. 

In  January,  1867,  Commander  R.  W.  Shufeldt,  in  the  U.  S.  S. 
Wachusett,  visited  this  inlet  to  obtain  redress  for  the  murder  of 
the  crew  of  the  American  schooner  General  Sherman,  and  while 
vainly  waiting,  surveyed  poi'tions  of  it,  giving  the  name  of  Wachu- 
sett Bay  to  the  place  of  anchorage.  Judging  from  native  maps, 
the  scale  of  the  chart  made  from  this  survey  was  on  too  large  a 
scale,  though  the  recent  map-makers  of  Tokio  have  followed  it. 
The  southern  coast  also  is  dotted  with  groups  of  islands,  and  made 
dangerous  by  large  shoals.  One  of  the  approaches  to  the  national 
capital  and  the  commercial  city  of  Sunto,  or  Kai-seng,  is  navi- 
gable for  junks,  through  a tortuous  channel  which  threads  the  vast 
sand-banks  formed  by  the  Han  River.  Hai-cliiu,  the  capital,  is 
near  the  southern  central  coast,  and  Whang-chiu,  an  old  baronial 
walled  city,  is  in  the  north,  on  the  Ta-tong  River,  now,  as  of  old, 
a famous  boundary  line. 

Though  Whang-hai  is  not  reckoned  rich,  being  only  the  sixth 
in  order  of  the  eight  circuits,  yet  there  are  several  products  of 
importance.  Rock,  or  fossil  salt,  is  plentiful.  Flints  for  fire-arms 
and  household  use  were  obtained  here  chiefly,  though  the  best 
gun-flints  came  from  China.  Lucifer  matches  and  percussion 
rifles  have  destroyed,  or  will  soon  destroy,  this  ancient  industry. 
One  district  produces  excellent  ginseng,  which  finds  a ready  sale, 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


187 


and  even  from  ancient  times  Whang-hai’ s pears  have  been  cele- 
brated. Splendid  yellow  varnish,  almost  equal  to  gilding,  is  also 
made  here.  The  native  varnishers  are  expert  and  tasteful  in  its 
use,  though  far  behind  the  inimitable  Japanese.  Fine  brushes 
for  pens,  made  of  the  hair  of  wolves’  tails,  are  also  in  repute 
among  students  and  merchants. 

The  high  road  from  the  capital,  after  passing  through  Sunto, 
winds  through  the  eastern  central  part,  and  crosses  a range  of 
mountains,  the  scenery  from  which  is  exceedingly  fine.  Smaller 
roads  thread  the  border  of  the  province  and  the  larger  towns,  but 
a great  portion  of  Whang-hai  along  its  central  length,  from  east 
to  west,  seems  to  be  mountainous,  and  by  no  means  densely 
populated.  There  are,  in  all,  twenty-eight  cities  with  magistrates. 

Whang-hai  was  never  reckoned  by  the  missionaries  as  among 
their  most  promising  fields,  yet  on  their  map  we  count  fifteen 
or  more  signs  of  the  cross,  betokening  the  presence  of  their  con- 
verts, and  its  soil,  like  that  of  the  other  provinces,  has  more  than 
once  been  reddened  by  the  blood  of  men  who  preferred  to  die  for 
their  convictions,  rather  than  live  the  worthless  life  of  the  pagan 
renegade.  Most  of  the  victims  suffered  at  Hai-chiu,  the  capital, 
though  Whang-cliiu,  in  the  north,  shares  the  same  sinister  fame 
in  a lesser  degree.  The  people  of  Whang-hai  are  said,  by  the 
Seoul  folks,  to  be  narrow,  stupid,  and  dull.  They  bear  an  ill 
name  for  avarice,  bad  faith,  and  a love  of  lying  quite  unusual  even 
among  Coreans.  The  official  enumeration  of  houses  and  men  fit 
for  military  duty,  is  103,200  of  the  former  and  87,170  of  the 
latter. 


KIUNG-KEI,  OR  THE  CAPITAL  PROVINCE. 

Kiung-kei,  the  smallest  of  the  eight  circuits,  is  politically  the 
royal  or  court  province,  and  physically  the  basin  of  the  largest 
river  inside  the  peninsula.  The  tremendous  force  of  its  current, 
and  the  volume  of  its  waters  bring  down  immense  masses  of  silt 
annually.  Beginning  at  a point  near  the  capital,  wide  sand-banks 
are  formed,  which  are  bare  at  low  water,  but  are  flooded  in  time 
of  rain,  or  at  the  melting  of  the  spring  snows.  The  tides  rise  to 
the  height  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet,  creating  violent  eddies  and 
currents,  in  which  the  management  of  ships  is  a matter  of  great 
difficulty.  The  Han  is  navigable  for  foreign  vessels,  certainly  as 
far  as  the  capital,  as  two  French  men-of-war  proved  in  1866,  and 
it  may  be  ascended  still  farther  in  light  steamers.  The  causes 


188 


COREA. 


of  the  violence,  coldness,  and  rapidity  of  the  currents  of  Han 
River  (called  Salt  or  Salee  on  our  charts),  which  have  baffled 
French  and  American  steamers,  will  be  recognized  by  a study  of 
its  sources.  The  head  waters  of  this  stream  are  found  in  the  dis- 
tant province  of  Kang-wen,  nearly  the  whole  breadth  of  the  penin- 
sula from  the  mouth.  Almost  the  entire  area  of  this  province  of 
the  river-sources,  including  the  western  watershed  of  the  moun- 
tain range  that  walls  the  eastern  coast,  is  drained  by  the  tributa- 
ries which  form  the  river,  which  also  receives  affluents  from  two 
other  provinces.  Pouring  their  united  volume  past  the  capital, 
shifting  channels  and  ever  new  and  unexpected  bars  and  flats  are 


formed,  rendering  navigation,  and  especially  warlike  naval  opera- 
tions, very’  difficult.  Its  channel  is  very  hard  to  find  from  the  sea. 
The  French,  in  1845,  attempting  its  exploration,  were  foiled. 
Like  most  rivers  in  Cho-sen,  the  Han  has  many  local  names. 

The  city  of  Han-Yang,  or  Seoul,  is  situated  on  the  north  side  of 
the  river,  about  thirty-five  miles  from  its  mouth,  measuring  by  a 
straight  line,  or  fifty  miles  if  reckoned  by  the  channel  of  the  river. 
It  lies  in  37°  30'  north  latitude,  and  127°  4'  longitude,  east  from 
Greenwich.  The  name  Han-yang,  means  “ the  fortress  on  the 
Han  River.”  The  common  term  applied  to  the  royal  city  is  Seoul, 
which  means  “the  capital,”  just  as  the  Japanese  called  the  capital 
of  their  country  Miako,  or  Kio,  instead  of  saying  Kioto.  Seoul  is 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


ISO 


properly  a common  norm,  but  by  popular  use  lias  become  a proper 
name,  which,  in  English,  may  be  correctly  written  with  a capital 
initial.  According  to  the  locality  whence  they  come,  the  natives 
pronounce  the  name  Say'-ool,  Shay'-ool,  or  Say'-oor.  The  city  is 
often  spoken  of  as  “ the  king’s  residence,”  and  on  foreign  maps  is 
marked  “King-ki  Tail,”  which  is  the  name  of  the  province.  The 
city  proper  lies  distant  nearly  a league  from  the  river  bank,  but 
has  suburbs,  extending  down  to  the  sand-flats.  A pamphlet  lately 
published  in  the  city  gives  it  30,723  houses,  which,  allowing  five 
in  a house,  would  give  a population  of  over  150,000  souls.  The 
natural  advantages  of  Seoul  are  excellent.  On  the  north  a high 
range  of  the  Ho  Mountain  rises  like  a wall,  to  the  east  towers  the 
Ridge  of  Barriers,  the  mighty  flood  of  the  Han  rolls  to  the  south, 
a bight  of  which  washes  the  western  suburb. 

The  scenery  from  the  capital  is  magnificent,  and  those  walking 
along  the  city  walls,  as  they  rise  over  the  hill-crests  and  bend  into 
the  valleys,  can  feast  their  eyes  on  the  luxuriant  verdure  and  glori- 
ous mountain  views  for  which  this  country  is  noted.  The  walls  of 
the  city  are  of  crenellated  masonry  of  varying  height,  averaging 
about  twenty  feet,  with  arched  stone  bridges  spanning  the  water- 
courses, as  seen  in  the  reproduced  photograph  on  page  79.  The 
streets  are  narrow  and  tortuous.  The  king’s  castle  is  in  the  north- 
ern part.  The  high  roads  to  the  eight  points  of  the  compass  start 
from  the  palace,  through  the  city  gates.  Within  sight  from  the 
river  are  the  O-pong  san,  and  the  Sam-kak  san  or  three-peaked 
mountain,  which  the  French  have  named  Cock’s  Comb.  North  of 
the  city  is  Cho-kei,  or  tide-valley,  in  which  is  a waterfall  forty  feet 
high.  This  spot  is  a great  resort  for  tourists  and  picnic  parties 
in  the  spring  and  summer.  From  almost  any  one  of  the  hills  near 
the  city  charming  views  of  the  island-dotted  river  may  be  ob- 
tained, and  the  sight  of  the  spring  floods,  or  of  the  winter  ice 
breaking  up  and  shooting  the  enormous  blocks  of  ice  with  terrific 
force  down  the  current,  that  piles  them  up  into  fantastic  shapes 
or  strews  the  shores,  is  much  enjoyed  by  the  people.  Inundations 
are  frequent  and  terrible  in  this  province,  but  usually  the  water 
subsides  quickly.  Not  much  harm  is  done,  and  the  floods  enrich 
the  soil,  except  where  they  deposit  sand  only.  There  are  few 
large  bridges  over  the  rivers,  but  in  the  cities  and  towns,  stone 
bridges,  constructed  with  an  arch  and  of  good  masonry,  are  built. 
The  islands  in  the  river  near  the  capital  are  inhabited  by  fisher- 
men, who  pay  their  taxes  in  fish.  Another  large  stream  which 


190 


COREA. 


joins  its  waters  with  the  Han,  ■within  a fewr  miles  from  its  mouth 
near  Kang-wa  Island,  is  the  Rin-eliin  River,  wiiose  head  waters  are 
among  the  mountains  at  the  north  of  Kang-wen,  within  thirty 
miles  of  the  newly-opened  port  of  Gen-san  on  the  eastern  coast. 
Several  important  towns  are  situated  on  or  near  its  banks,  and  it 
is  often  mentioned  in  the  histories  which  detail  the  movements  of 
the  armies,  which  from  China,  Japan,  and  the  teeming  North,  have 
often  crossed  and  recrossed  it. 

Naturally,  we  expect  to  find  the  military  geography  of  this 
province  well  studied  by  the  authorities,  and  its  strategic  points 
strongly  defended.  An  inspection  of  the  map  shows  us  that  we 


are  not  mistaken.  Four  great  fortresses  guard  the  approaches 
to  the  royal  city.  These  are  Suwen  to  the  south,  Kwang-chiu  to 
the  southeast,  Sunto  or  Kai-seng  to  the  north,  and  Kang-wa  to  the 
west.  All  these  fortresses  have  been  the  scene  of  siege  and 
battle  in  time  past.  On  the  walls  of  the  first  three,  the  rival 
banners  of  the  hosts  of  Ming  from  China  and  of  Taiko  from 
Japan  were  set  in  alternate  succession  by  the  victors  wdio  held 
them  during  the  Japanese  occupation  of  the  country,  between  the 
years  1592  and  1597.  The  Manchiu  standards  in  1637,  and  the 
French  eagles  in  1866,  were  planted  on  the  ramparts  of  Kang-wa. 
Besides  these  castled  cities,  there  are  forts  and  redoubts  along  the 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


191 


river  banks,  crowning  most  of  the  commanding  headlands,  or  points 
of  vantage.  Over  these  the  stars  and  stripes  floated  for  three 
days,  in  1871,  when  the  American  forces  captured  these  strong- 
holds. In  most  cases  the  walls  of  cities  and  forts  are  not  over  ten 
feet  high,  though,  in  those  of  the  first  order,  a height  of  twenty- 
five  feet  is  obtained.  None  of  them  would  offer  serious  difficulty 
to  an  attacking  force  possessing  modem  artillery. 

Kai-seng,  or  Sunto,  is  one  of  the  most  important,  if  not  the 
chief,  commercial  city  in  the  kingdom,  and  from  960  to  1392,  it 
was  the  national  capital.  The  chief  staple  of  manufacture  and 
sale  is  the  coarse  cotton  cloth,  white  and  colored,  which  forms 
the  national  dress.  Kang-wa,  on  the  island  of  the  same  name  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Han  River,  is  the  favorite  fortress,  to  which  the 
royal  family  are  sent  for  safety  in  time  of  war,  or  are  banished  in 
case  of  deposition.  Kang-wa  means  “the  river-flower.”  During 
the  Manchiu  invasion,  the  king  fled  here,  and,  for  a while,  made 
it  his  capital.  Kwang-chiu  was  anciently  the  capital  of  the  old 
kingdom  of  Hiaksai,  which  included  this  province,  and  flourished 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  until  the  Tang  dynasty 
of  China  destroyed  it  in  the  seventh  century.  Kwang-chiu  has 
suffered  many  sieges.  Other  important  towns  near  the  capital  are 
Tong-cliin,  opposite  Kang-wa,  Kum-po,  and  Pupion,  all  situated 
on  the  high  road.  In-chiun,  situated  on  Imperatrice  Gulf,  is  the 
port  newly  opened  to  foreign  trade  and  residence.  The  Japanese 
pronounce  the  characters  with  which  the  name  is  written,  Nin-sen, 
and  the  Chinese  Jen-chuan.  At  this  place  the  American  and  Chi- 
nese treaties  were  signed  in  June,  1882  ; Commodore  Shufeldt,  in 
the  steam  corvette  Swatara,  being  the  plenipotentiary  of  the 
United  States.  Situated  on  the  main  road  from  the  southern 
provinces,  and  between  the  capital  and  the  sea,  the  location  is  a 
good  one  for  trade,  while  the  dangerous  channel  of  the  Han  River 
is  avoided. 

Most  of  the  islands  lying  off  the  coast  are  well  wooded ; many 
are  inhabited,  and  on  a number  of  them  shrines  are  erected,  and 
hermits  five,  who  are  regarded  as  sacred.  Their  defenceless  posi- 
tion offer  tempting  inducements  to  the  Chinese  pirates,  who  have 
often  ravaged  them.  Kiung-kei  has  been  the  scene  of  battles  and 
contending  armies  and  nations  and  the  roadway  for  migrations 
from  the  pre-historic  time  to  the  present  decade.  The  great  high- 
ways of  the  kingdom  converge  upon  its  chief  city.  In  it  also 
Christianity  has  witnessed  its  grandest  triumphs  and  bloodiest 


192 


COREA. 


defeats.  Over  and  over  again  the  seed  of  the  church  has  been 
planted  in  the  blood  of  its  martyrs.  Ka-pion,  east  of  Seoul,  is  the 
cradle  of  the  faith,  the  home  of  its  first  convert. 

For  political  purposes,  this  “home  province”  is  divided  into 
the  left  and  right  divisions,  of  which  the  former  has  twenty-two, 
and  the  latter  fourteen  districts.  The  kam-sa,  or  governor,  lives 
at  the  capital,  but  outside  of  the  walls,  as  he  has  little  or  no  au- 
thority in  the  city  proper.  His  residence  is  near  the  west  gate. 
The  enumeration  of  houses  and  people  gives,  exclusive  of  the 
capital,  13G,000  of  the  former,  and  G80,000  of  the  latter,  of  whom 
106,573  are  enrolled  as  soldiers.  The  inhabitants  of  the  capital 
province  enjoy  the  reputation,  among  the  other  provincials,  of 
being  light-headed,  fickle,  and  much  given  to  luxury  and  pleasure. 
“ It  is  the  officials  of  this  province,”  they  say,  “ who  give  the  cue 
to  those  throughout  the  eight  provinces,  of  rapacity,  prodigality, 
and  love  of  display.”  Official  grandees,  nobles,  literary  men,  and 
professionals  generally  are  most  numerous  in  Kiung-kei,  and  so, 
it  may  be  added,  are  singing  and  dancing  girls  and  people  who 
live  to  amuse  others.  When  fighting  is  to  be  done,  in  time  of 
war,  the  government  usually  calls  on  the  northern  provinces  to 
furnish  soldiers.  From  a bird’s-eye  view  of  the  history  of  this 
part  of  Corea,  we  see  that  the  inhabitants  most  anciently  known 
to  occupy  it  were  the  independent  clans  called  the  Ma-han,  which 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  were  united  into  the 
kingdom  of  Hiaksai,  which  existed  until  its  destruction  by  the 
Tang  dynasty  of  China,  in  the  seventh  century.  From  that  time 
imtil  930  a.d.  it  formed  a part  of  the  kingdom  of  Shinra,  which  in 
turn  made  way  for  united  Korai,  which  first  gave  political  unity 
to  the  peninsula,  and  lasted  until  1392,  when  the  present  dy- 
nasty with  Cho-sen,  or  Corea,  as  we  now  know  it,  was  established. 
The  capital  cities  in  succession  from  Hiaksai  to  Cho-sen  were, 
Kwang-chiu,  Sunto,  and  Han-yang. 


CHUNG-CHONG,  OR  SERENE  LOYALTY. 

The  province  of  Serene  Loyalty  lies  mostly  between  the  thirty- 
sixth  and  thirty-seventh  parallel.  Its  principal  rivers  are  the 
Keum,  flowing  into  Basil’s  Bay,  and  another,  which  empties  into 
Prince  Jerome  Gulf.  Its  northeast  corner,  is  made  by  the  Han 
River  bending  in  a loop  around  the  White  Cloud  (Paik  Un)  Moun- 
tain. Fertile  flats  and  valleys  abound.  The  peninsula  of  Nai-po 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


193 


/within  the  waters),  in  the  northwestern  corner,  is  often  called 
the  “Granary  of  the  Kingdom.”  Most  of  the  rice  of  the  Nai-po, 
and  the  province  generally,  is  raised  for  export  to  the  capital  and 
the  north.  In  the  other  circuits  the  rice  lands  are  irrigated  by 
leading  the  water  from  the  streams  through  each  field,  which  is  di- 
vided from  the  other  by  little  walls  or  barriers  of  earth,  while  in 
this  region,  and  in  Chulla,  the  farmers  more  frequently  make 
great  reservoirs  or  ponds,  in  which  water  is  stored  for  use  in  dry 
weather.  The  mountains  are  the  great  reservoirs  of  moisture,  for 
in  all  the  peninsula  there  is  not  a lake  of  noticeable  size.  The 
coast  line  is  well  indented  with  bays  and  harbors,  and  the  run  to 
Shantung  across  the  Yellow  Sea  is  easily  made  by  junks,  and  even 
in  open  boats.  On  this  account  the  native  Christians  and  French 
missionaries  have  often  chosen  this  province  as  their  gate  of  entry 
into  the  “land  of  martyrs.” 

In  the  history  of  Corean  Christianity  this  province  will  ever 
be  remembered  as  the  nursery  of  the  faith.  Its  soil  has  been 
most  richly  soaked  with  the  blood  of  the  native  believers.  With 
unimportant  exceptions,  every  town  along  its  northern  border,  and 
especially  in  the  Nai-po,  has  been  sown  with  the  seeds  of  the  faith. 
The  first  converts  and  confessors,  the  most  devoted  adherents  of 
their  French  teachers,  the  most  gifted  and  intelligent  martyrs,  were 
from  Nai-po,  and  it  is  nearly  certain  that  the  fires  of  Roman  Chris- 
tianity still  smoulder  here,  and  will  again  burst  into  flame  at  the 
first  fanning  of  favorable  events.  The  three  great  highways  from 
Fusan  to  the  capital  cross  this  province  in  the  northeastern  portion. 
Over  these  roads  the  rival  Japanese  armies  of  invasion,  led  by 
Konislii  and  Kato,  passed  in  jealous  race  in  1592,  reaching  the 
capital,  after  fighting  and  reducing  castles  on  the  way,  in  eighteen 
days  after  disembarkation.  Chion-Chiu,  the  fortress  on  whose 
fate  the  capital  depended,  lies  in  the  northeast,  where  two  of  the 
roads  converge.  The  western,  or  sea  road,  that  comes  up  from 
the  south,  hugs  the  shore  through  the  entire  length  of  the  prov- 
ince. Others,  along  which  the  Japanese  armies  marched  in  1592, 
and  again  in  1597,  traverse  the  central  part.  Along  one  of  these 
roads,  the  captive  Hollanders,  almost  the  first  Europeans  in  Corea, 
rode  in  1663,  and  one  of  the  cities  of  which  Hamel  speaks,  Kon- 
sio  (Kong-Cliiu),  is  the  capital  and  residence  of  the  provincial 
governor. 

The  bays  and  islands,  which  have  been  visited  by  foreign  navi- 
gators, retain  their  names  on  European  or  Japanese  charts.  Some 
13 


194 


COREA. 


of  these  are  not  very  complimentary,  as  Deception  Bay,  Insult 
Island,  and  False  River.  At  Basil’s  Bay,  named  after  Captain 
Basil  Hall,  Gutzlaff  also  landed  in  1832,  planted  potatoes,  and  left 
seeds  and  books.  The  archipelago  to  the  northwest  was,  in  1866, 
named  after  the  Prince  Imperial,  who  met  his  death  in  Zululand 
in  1878.  Prince  Jerome’s  Gulf  is  well  known  as  the  scene  of  the 
visits  of  the  Hover  and  the  Emperor,  with  the  author  of  “A  For- 
bidden Land”  on  board.  Haimi,  a town  several  times  mentioned 
by  him,  is  at  the  head  of  Shoal  Gulf,  which  runs  up  into  the 
Nai-po.  Two  other  bays,  named  Caroline  and  Deception,  indent 
the  Nai-po  peninsula. 


The  large  shoal  off  the  coast  is  called  Chasseriau.  Other  wide 
and  dangerous  shoals  line  parts  of  the  coast,  making  navigation 
exceedingly  difficult.  Fogs  are  frequent  and  very  dense,  shroud- 
ing all  landmarks  for  hours.  The  tides  and  currents  are  very 
strong,  rising  in  some  places  even  as  high  as  sixty  feet.  The  in- 
ternational body-snatching  expedition,  undertaken  by  a French 
priest,  a German  merchant,  and  an  American  interpreter,  in  1867, 
to  obtain  the  bones  or  ancestral  relics  of  the  Eegent,  was  planned 
to  take  advantage  of  a certain  “nick  of  time.”  The  river  empty- 
ing into  the  Prince  Jerome  Gulf,  runs  some  thirty  miles  inland, 
and  can  be  ascended  by  a barge,  or  very  light-draught  steamer,  only 
within  the  period  of  thirty  hours  during  spring  tides,  when  the 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


195 


water  rises  to  a height  of  three  feet  at  the  utmost,  while  during 
the  rest  of  the  month  it  dries  up  completely.  On  account  of 
delays,  through  grounding,  miscalculated  distances,  and  the  bur- 
glar-proof masonry  of  Corean  tombs,  the  scheme  failed.  The  nar- 
rative of  this  remarkable  expedition  is  given  in  a certain  book  on 
Corea,  and  in  the  proceedings  of  the  United  States  Consular  Court 
at  Shanghae,  China,  for  the  year  1867. 

The  flora  is  a brilliant  feature  of  the  summer  landscape. 
Tiger-lilies  and  showy  compositse,  asters,  cactus  plants,  cruciferae, 
labiatse,  and  many  other  European  species  abound  side  by  side 
with  tropical  varieties.  The  air  is  full  of  insects,  and  the  number 
and  variety  of  the  birds  exceed  those  of  Japan.  Pigeons,  butcher- 
birds, fly-catchers,  woodpeckers,  thrushes,  larks,  blackbirds,  king- 
fishers, wrens,  spoonbills,  quail,  curlew,  titmouse,  have  been  no- 
ticed. The  ever-present  black  crows  contrast  with  the  snowy 
heron,  which  often  stand  in  rows  along  the  -watercourses,  while 
on  the  reefs  the  cormorant,  sea-gulls,  and  many  kinds  of  ducks 
and  diving  birds,  many  of  them  being  of  species  differing  from 
those  in  Europe,  show  the  abundance  of  winged  life.  The  archi- 
pelago and  the  peninsula  alike,  are  almost  virgin  soil  to  the  stu- 
dent of  natural  history  and  the  man  of  science  will  yet,  in  this 
secluded  nook  of  creation,  solve  many  an  interesting  problem  con- 
cerning the  procession  of  life  on  the  globe.  So  far  as  known,  the 
Coreans  seem  far  behind  the  Japanese  in  the  study  and  classifica- 
tion of  animate  nature. 

The  Coreans  are  not  a seafaring  people.  They  do  not  sail  out 
from  land,  except  upon  rare  occasions.  A steamer  is  yet,  to  most 
Coreans,  a wonderful  thing.  The  common  folks  point  to  one,  and 
call  it  “ a divine  ship.”  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  they  think  the 
country  of  steamships  so  utterly  at  the  ends  of  the  earth,  that  to 
pass  over  ten  million  leagues,  and  endure  the  winds  and  waves, 
could  not  be  done  by  human  aid,  and  therefore  such  a ship  must 
have,  in  some  way,  the  aid  of  the  gods.  The  prow  and  stern  of 
fishing-boats  are  much  alike,  and  are  neatly  nailed  together  with 
wooden  nails.  They  use  round  stems  of  trees  in  their  natural 
state,  for  masts.  The  sails  are  made  of  straw,  plaited  together 
with  cross-bars  of  bamboo.  The  sail  is  at  the  stern  of  the  boat. 
They  sail  well  within  three  points  of  the  wind,  and  the  fishermen 
are  very  skilful  in  managing  them.  In  their  working-boats,  they 
do  not  use  oars,  but  sculls,  worked  on  a pivot  in  the  gunwale  or 
an  outrigger.  The  sculls  have  a very  long  sweep,  and  are  worked 


196 


COREA. 


by  two,  three,  and  even . ten  men.  For  narrow  rivers  this  method 
is  very  convenient,  and  many  boats  can  easily  pass  each  other,  ox- 
move  side  by  side,  taking  up  very  little  room.  For  fishing  among 
the  rocks,  or  for  landing  in  the  surf,  rafts  are  extensively  used  all 
along  the  coasts.  These  rafts  have  a platform,  capable  of  holding 
eight  or  ten  persons.  The  boats  or  barges,  which  are  used  for 
pleasure  excursions  and  picnic  parties,  have  high  bows  and  orna- 
mental sterns,  carved  or  otherwise  decorated.  Over  the  centre  a 
canopy  stretched  on  four  poles,  tufted  with  horsehair,  shelters  the 
pleasure-seekers  from  the  sun  as  they  enjoy  the  river  scenery.  In 
the  cut  we  see  three  officials,  or  men  of  rank,  enjoying  themselves 
at  a table,  on  which  may  be  tea,  ginseng  infusion,  or  rice  spirit, 


A Pleasure-party  on  the  River. 


with  fruits  in  dishes.  They  sit  on  silken  cushions,  and  seem  to  be 
pledging  each  other  in  a friendly  cup.  Perhaps  they  will  compose 
and  exchange  a pedantic  poem  or  two  on  the  way.  In  the  long,  high 
bow  there  is  room  for  the  two  men  to  walk  the  deck,  while  with 
their  poles  they  propel  the  craft  gently  along  the  stream,  while  the 
steersman  handles  the  somewhat  xinwieldy  rudder  The  common 
people  use  a boat  made  of  plain  unpainted  wood,  neatly  joined 
together,  without  nails  or  metal,  the  fastenings  being  of  wood,  the 
cushions  of  straw  matting  and  the  cordage  of  sea  grass. 

By  official  reckoning  Chung-chong  contains  244,080  houses, 
with  139,201  men  eni-olled  for  military  service,  in  fifty-four 
districts.  It  contains  ten  walled  cities,  and  like  every  other  one 
of  the  eight  provinces  is  divided  into  two  departments,  Right  and 
Left. 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


197 


CHTTLLA,  OR  COMPLETE  NETWORK. 

This  province,  the  most  southern  of  the  eight,  is  also  the 
warmest  and  most  fertile.  It  is  nearest  to  Shang-hae,  and  to  the 
track  of  foreign  commerce.  Its  island-fringed  shores  have  been 
the  scene  of  many  shipwrecks,  among  which  were  the  French 
frigates,  whose  names  Glory  and  Victory,  were  better  than  their 
inglorious  end,  on  a reef  near  Kokun  Island. 

Until  the  voyage  of  Captains  Maxwell  and  Basil  Hall,  in  the 
Alceste  and  Lyra,  in  1816,  “the  Corean  archipelago”  was  abso- 
lutely unknown  in  Europe,  and  was  not  even  marked  on  Chinese 
charts.  In  the  map  of  the  empire,  prepared  by  the  Jesuits  at 
Peking  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the  main  land  was  made  to 
extend  out  over  a space  now  known  to  be  covered  by  hundreds  of 
islands,  and  a huge  elephant — the  conventional  sign  of  ignorance 
of  the  map-makers  of  that  day — occupied  the  space.  In  these 
virgin  waters,  Captain  Hall  sailed  over  imaginary  forests  and 
cities,  and  straight  through  the  body  of  the  elephant,  and  for  the 
first  time  explored  an  archipelago  which  he  found  to  be  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  on  earth.  A later  visitor,  and  a naturalist,  states 
that  from  a single  island  peak,  one  may  count  one  hundred  and 
thirty-five  islets.  Stretching  far  away  to  the  north  and  to  the 
south,  were  groups  of  dark  blue  islets,  rising  mistily  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  water.  The  sea  was  covered  with  large  picturesque 
boats,  which,  crowded  with  natives  in  their  white  fluttering  robes, 
were  putting  off  from  the  adjacent  villages,  and  sculling  across 
the  pellucid  waters  to  visit  the  stranger  ship. 

On  these  islands,  as  Arthur  Adams  tells  us,  the  seals  sport,  the 
spoonbill,  quail,  curlew,  titmouse,  wagtail,  teal,  crane  and  innu- 
merable birds  thrive.  The  woody  peaks  are  rich  in  game,  and  the 
shores  are  happy  hunting-grounds  for  the  naturalist.  Sponges 
are  very  plentiful,  and  in  some  places  may  be  gathered  in  any 
quantity.  There  are  a number  of  well-marked  species.  Some  are 
flat  and  split  into  numerous  ribbon-like  branches,  others  are  round 
and  finger-shaped,  some  cylindrical,  and  others  like  hollow  tubes. 
Though  some  have  dense  white  foliations,  hard  or  horny,  others 
are  loose  and  flexible,  and  await  only  the  hand  of  the  diver.  The 
Corean  toilet  requisites  perhaps  do  not  include  these  useful  arti- 
cles, which  he  waste  in  the  sea.  The  coral-beds  are  also  very 
splendid  in  their  living  tints  of  green,  blue,  violet,  and  yellow, 


193 


COREA. 


and  appear,  as  you  look  down  upon  them  through  the  clear  trans. 
parent  water,  to  form  beautiful  flower-gardens  of  marine  plants. 
In  these  submarine  parterres,  amid  the  protean  forms  of  the 
branched  corals,  huge  madrepores,  brain-shaped,  flat,  or  headed 
like  gigantic  mushrooms,  are  interspersed  with  sponges  of  the 
deepest  red  and  huge  star-fislies  of  the  richest  blue.  Seals  sport 
and  play  unharmed  on  many  of  the  islands,  and  the  sea-beach  is 
at  times  blue  with  the  bodies  of  lively  crabs.  An  unfailing  store- 
house of  marine  food  is  found  in  this  archipelago. 

The  eight  provinces  take  their  names  from  their  two  chief  cities, 
as  Mr.  Carles  has  shown.  Whang  Hai  Do,  for  instance,  is  formed 
by  uniting  the  initial  syllables  of  the  largest  cities,  Whang-chiu  and 
Hai-chiu.  In  the  case  of  Chulla-Do,  the  Chon  and  Nai  in  Chon- 
chiu  and  Nai-cliiu  (or  Chung-jiu  and  Na-jiu)  become,  by  euphony, 
Cliulla  or  Cholla.  Hamel  tells  of  the  great  cayman  or  “alligator,” 
as  inhabiting  this  region,  asserting  that  it  was  “eighteen  or  twenty 
ells  long,”  with  “sixty  joints  in  the  back,”  and  able  to  swallow  a 
man.1 

The  soil  of  Cliulla  is  rich  and  well  cultivated,  and  large  quan- 
tities of  rice  and  grain  are  shipped  to  the  capital.  The  wide  val- 
leys afford  juicy  pastime  for  the  herds  of  cattle  that  furnish  the  beef 
diet  which  the  Coreans  crave  more  than  the  Japanese.  The  visit- 
ing or  shipwrecked  foreign  visitors  on  the  coast  speak  in  terms  of 
highest  praise  of  fat  bullocks,  and  juicy  steaks  which  they  have 
eaten.  Considerable  quantities  of  hides,  bones,  horns,  leather, 
and  tallow  now  form  a class  of  standard  exports  to  Japan,  whose 
people  now  wear  buttons  and  leather  shoes.  As  a beef  market, 
Corea  exceeds  either  China  or  Japan — a point  of  importance  to 
the  large  number  of  foreigners  living  at  the  ports,  who  require  a 
flesh  diet.  Troops  of  horses  graze  on  the  pasture  lands. 

Cliulla  is  well  furnished  with  ports  and  harbors  for  the  junks 
that  ply  northward.  The  town  of  Mopo,  in  latitude  34°  40',  has 
been  looked  upon  by  the  Japanese  as  a favorable  place  for  trade 
and  residence,  and  may  yet  be  opened  under  the  provisions  of 
the  treaty  of  1876.  This  region  does  not  lack  sites  of  great 
historic  interest.  The  castle  of  Nanon,  in  the  eastern  part,  was 

1 Mr.  Tierre  L Jouy,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute,  who  in  1884  spent  six 
months  in  Corea  in  zoological  collecting  and  research,  says:  “No  monkeys  or 
alligators  are  found  in  Corea.  I am  at  a loss  to  understand  how  the  alligator 
story  originated.”  Was  the  alleged  animal  the  giant  salamander,  or  the  aki? 
Japanese  art  and  legend  refer  often  to  alligators. 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


199 


the  scene  of  a famous  siege  and  battle  between  the  allied  Coreans 
and  Chinese  and  the  Japanese  besiegers,  during  the  second  inva- 


sion, in  1597.  The  investment  lasted  many  weeks,  and  over  five 
thousand  men  were  slaughtered.  It  was  in  this  province  also 
that  the  crew  of  the  Dutch  ship  Sparrowhawk  were  kept  prison- 


200 


COREA. 


ers,  some  for  thirteen  years,  some  for  life,  of  whom  Hendrik 
Hamel  wrote  so  graphic  a narrative.  For  two  centuries  his  little 
work  afforded  the  only  European  knowledge  of  Corea  accessible 
to  inquirers.  Among  other  employments,  the  Dutch  captives 
were  set  to  making  pottery,  and  this  province  has  many  villages 
devoted  to  the  fictile  art.  The  work  turned  out  consists,  in  the 
main,  of  those  huge  earthem  jars  for  holding  water  and  grains, 
common  to  Corean  households,  and  large  enough  to  hold  one  of 
the  forty  thieves  of  Arabian  Nights  story. 

Through  the  labors  of  the  French  missionaries,  Christianity 
has  penetrated  into  Chulla-do,  and  a large  number  of  towns,  espe- 
cially in  the  north,  still  contain  believers  who  are  the  descendants 
or  relatives  of  men  and  women  who  have  exchanged  their  lives  for 
a good  confession.  The  tragedy  and  romance  of  the  Christian 
martyrs,  of  this  and  other  provinces,  have  been  told  by  Dallet. 
Most  of  the  executions  have  taken  place  at  the  capital  city  of 
Chon-chiu.  Many  have  been  banished  to  Quelpart,  or  some  of 
the  many  islands  along  the  coast,  where  it  is  probable  many  yet 
live  and  pine. 

Three  large,  and  several  small  rivers  drain  the  valleys.  Two 
of  these  flow  into  the  Yellow  Sea  and  one  into  the  sea  of  Japan. 
The  main  highway  of  this  province  traverses  the  western  portion 
near  the  sea,  the  other  roads  being  of  inferior  importance.  Forti- 
fied cities  or  castle  towns  are  numerous  in  this  part  of  Corea,  for 
this  province  was  completely  overrun  by  the  Japanese  armies  in 
1592-1597,  and  its  soil  was  the  scene  of  many  battles.  By  official 
enumeration  there  are  290,550  houses,  and  206,140  males  enrolled 
for  service  in  war.  The  districts  number  fifty-six.  The  capital 
is  Chon-chiu,  which  was  once  considered  the  second  largest  city 
in  the  kingdom. 

If  Corea  is  “the  Italy  of  the  East,”  then  Quelpart  is  its 
Sicily.  It  lies  about  sixty  miles  south  of  the  main  land.  It  may 
be  said  to  be  an  oval,  rock-bound  island,  covered  with  innumer- 
able conical  mountains,  topped  in  many  instances  by  extinct  vol- 
canic craters,  and  “ all  bowing  down  before  one  vast  and  towering 
giant,  whose  foot  is  planted  in  the  centre  of  the  island,  and 
whose  head  is  lost  in  the  clouds.”  This  peak,  called  Mount  Auck- 
land, or  Han-ra  san,  by  the  people,  is  about  6,500  feet  high.  On 
its  top  are  three  extinct  craters,  within  each  of  which  is  a lake  of 
pure  water.  Corean  children  are  taught  to  believe  that  the  three 
first-created  men  of  the  world  still  dwell  on  these  lofty  heights. 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


201 


The  whole  surface  of  the  island,  including  plains,  valleys,  and 
mountain  flanks,  is  carefully  and  beautifully  cultivated.  The  fields 
are  neatly  divided  by  walls  of  stone.  It  contains  a number  of 
towns  and  three  walled  cities,  but  there  are  no  good  harbors.  As 
Quelpart  has  long  been  used  as  a place  for  the  banishment  of 
convicts,  the  islanders  are  rude  and  unpolished.  They  raise  excel- 
lent crons  of  grain  and  fruit  for  the  home  provinces.  The  finely- 
plaited  straw  hats,  which  form  the  staple  manufacture,  are  the 
best  in  this  land  of  big  hats,  in  which  the  amplitude  of  the  head- 
coverings  is  the  wonder  of  strangers.  Immense  droves  of  horses 
and  cattle  are  reared,  and  one  of  the  outlying  islands  is  called 
Bullock  Island.  This  island  has  been  known  from  ancient  times, 
when  it  formed  an  independent  kingdom,  known  as  Tam-na. 
.ibout  100  a.d.,  it  is  recorded  that  the  inhabitants  sent  tribute  to 
one  of  the  states  on  the  main  land.  The  origin  of  the  high  cen- 
tral peak,  named  Mount  Auckland,  is  thus  given  by  the  islanders. 
“ Clouds  and  fogs  covered  the  sea,  and  the  earth  trembled  with  a 
noise  of  thunder  for  seven  days  and  seven  nights.  Finally  the 
waves  opened,  and  there  emerged  a mountain  more  than  one 
thousand  feet  high,  and  forty  ri  in  circumference.  It  had  neither 
plants  nor  trees  upon  it,  and  clouds  of  smoke,  widely  spread  out, 
covered  its  summit,  which  appeared  to  be  composed  chiefly  of 
sulphur.”  A learned  Corean  was  sent  to  examine  it  in  detail.  He 
did  so,  and  on  his  return  to  the  main  land  published  an  account 
of  his  voyage,  with  a sketch  of  the  mountain  thus  bom  out  of  the 
sea.  It  is  noticeable  that  this  account  coincides  with  the  ideas  of 
navigators,  who  have  studied  the  mountain,  and  speculated  on  its 
origin. 


KIUXG-SAXG,  OR  RESPECTFUL  CONGRATULATION. 

Kiung-sang  do,  or  the  Province  of  Respectful  Congratulation, 
is  nearest  to  Japan,  and  consists  chiefly  of  the  valleys  drained  by 
the  Nak-tong  River  and  its  tributaries.  It  admirably  illustrates 
the  principle  of  the  division  of  the  country  on  the  lines  furnished 
by  the  river  basins.  One  of  the  warmest  and  richest  of  the  eight 
provinces,  it  is  also  the  most  populous,  and  the  seat  of  many  his- 
torical associations  with  Japan,  in  ancient,  mediaeval,  and  modem 
times.  Between  the  court  of  Kion-chiu,  the  capital  of  Shinra,  and 
that  of  Kioto,  from  the  third  to  the  tenth  century,  the  relations 
of  war  and  peace,  letters,  and  religion  were  continuous  and  fruit- 
ful. When  the  national  capital  was  fixed  at  Sunto,  and  later  at 


202 


COREA. 


Seoul,  this  province  was  still  the  gateway  of  entrance  and  exit  to 
the  Japanese.  Many  a time  have  they  landed  near  the  mouth  ol 
the  Nak-tong  River,  which  opens  as  a natural  pass  in  the  moun- 
tains which  wall  in  the  coast.  Rapidly  seizing  the  strategic  points, 
they  have  made  themselves  masters  of  the  country.  The  influence 
of  their  frequent  visitations  is  shown  in  the  language,  manners, 
and  local  customs  of  southern  Cho-sen.  The  dialect  of  Kiung- 
sang  differs  to  a marked  degree  from  that  of  Ping-an,  and  much 
more  closely  resembles  that  of  modern  Japanese.  Kiung-sang 
seems  to  show  upon  its  surface  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
seats  of  civilization  in  the  peninsula.  This  is  certainly  so  if  roads 
and  facilities  for  travelling  be  considered.  The  highways  and  foot- 
paths and  the  relays  and  horses  kept  for  government  service, 
and  for  travellers,  are  more  numerous  than  in  any  other  province. 
It  also  contains  the  greatest  number  of  cities  having  organized 
municipal  governments,  and  is  the  most  densely  populated  of  the 
eight  provinces.  It  is  also  probable  that  in  its  natural  resources  it 
leads  all  the  others.  The  province  is  divided  into  seventy-one  dis- 
tricts, each  having  a magistrate,  in  which  are  421,500  houses,  and 
310,440  men  capable  of  military  duty.  Two  officials  of  high  rank 
assist  the  governor  in  his  functions,  and  the  admirals  of  the 
“ Sam-nam,”  or  three  southern  provinces,  have  their  headquarters 
in  Kiung-sang.  This  title  and  office,  one  of  the  most  honorable 
in  the  military  service,  was  created  after  the  Japanese  war  of 
1592-1597,  in  honor  of  a Corean  commander,  who  had  success- 
fully resisted  the  invaders  in  many  battles.  There  are  five  cities 
of  importance,  which  are  under  the  charge  of  governors.  Petty 
officials  are  also  appointed  for  every  island,  who  must  report  the 
arrival  or  visit  of  all  foreigners  at  once  to  their  superiors.  They 
were  always  in  most  favor  at  court  who  succeeded  in  prevail- 
ing upon  all  foreign  callers  to  leave  as  soon  as  possible.  Fusan 
has  been  held  by  the  Japanese  from  very  ancient  times.  Until 
18G8  it  was  a part  of  the  fief  of  the  daimio  of  Tsushima.  It  lies 
in  latitude  35°  6'  north,  and  longitude  129°  1'  east  from  Green- 
wich, and  is  distant  from  the  nearest  point  on  the  Japan  coast,  by 
a straight  line,  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  It  was  opened 
to  the  Japanese  by  the  treaty  of  1876,  and  is  now  a bustling  mart 
of  trade.  The  name  means,  not  “Gold  Hill,”  but  Pot  or  Skillet 
Mountain. 

The  approach  to  the  port  up  the  bay  is  through  very  fine  scen- 
ery, the  background  of  the  main  land  being  mountainous  and  the 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


203 


bay  studded  with  green  islands.  The  large  island  in  front  of  the 
settlement,  to  the  southward,  called  Tetsuye,  or  the  Isle  of  En- 
chanting View,  has  hills  eight  hundred  feet  high.  Hundreds  of 
horses  were  formerly  reared  here,  hence  it  is  often  called  Maki,  or 
island  of  green  pastures.  The  fortifications  of  Fusan,  on  the 
northern  side,  are  on  a hill,  and  front  the  sea.  The  soil  around 
Fusan  is  of  a dark  ruddy  color,  and  fine  fir  trees  are  numerous. 
The  fort  is  distant  aoout  a league  from  the  settlement,  and  Tong- 
nai  city  and  castle,  in  which  the  Corean  governor  resides,  are 
about  two  leagues  farther.  Tai-ku,  the  capital,  lies  in  the  centre 
of  the  province.  Shang-chiu,  in  the  northwestern  part,  is  one  of 
the  fortified  cities  guarding  the  approach  to  the  capital  from  the 
southeast.  It  was  captured  by  Konishi  during  his  brilliant  march, 
in  eighteen  days,  to  the  capital  in  1592.  In  recent  years,  much 
Christian  blood  has  been  shed  in  Shang-chiu,  though  the  city  which 
justly  claims  the  bad  eminence  in  slaughtering  Christians  is  Tai-ku, 
the  capital  of  the  province.  Uni-san,  a fewr  miles  south,  is  a site 
rich  in  classic  memories  to  all  Japanese,  for  here,  in  1597,  the  Chi- 
nese and  Corean  hosts  besieged  the  intrepid  Kato  and  the  brave, 
but  not  over-modest,  Ogawuclii  for  a whole  year,  during  which  the 
garrison  were  reduced,  by  straits  of  famine,  to  eat  human  flesh. 
When  the  Chinese  retreated,  and  a battle  was  fought  near  by,  be- 
tween them  and  the  relieving  forces,  ten  thousand  men  were  slain. 

Foreign  navigators  have  sprinkled  their  names  along  the  shore. 
Cape  Clonard  and  Unkoffsky  Bay  are  near  the  thirty-sixth  parallel. 
Cho-san  harbor  was  named  by  Captain  Broughton,  who  on  asking 
the  name  of  the  place  in  1797,  received  the  reply  “Cho-san,” 
which  is  the  name  of  the  kingdom  instead  of  the  harbor.  Other 
names  of  limited  recognition  are  found  on  charts  made  in  Europe. 
Many  inhabited  islands  he  off  the  coast,  some  of  which  are  used 
as  places  of  exile  to  Christians  and  other  offenders  against  the  law. 
Christianity  in  this  province  seems  to  have  flourished  chiefly  in 
the  towns  along  the  southern  sea  border.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the 
coast  consists  of  the  slopes  of  the  two  mountain  ranges  which 
front  the  sea,  and  is  less  densely  inhabited  than  the  interior,  hav- 
ing few  or  no  rivers  or  important  harbors.  The  one  exception  is 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Nak-tong  River,  opposite  Tsushima.  This  is 
the  gateway  into  the  province,  and  the  point  most  vulnerable  from 
Japan.  The  river  after  draining  the  whole  of  Kiung-sang,  widens 
into  a bay,  around  which  are  populous  cities  and  towns,  the  port 
of  Fusan  and  the  two  great  roads  to  Seoul.  Tsushima  (the  Twin 


204 


COREA. 


Islands)  lies  like  a stepping-stone  between  Corea  and  Japan,  and 
was  formerly  claimed  by  the  Coreans,  who  call  it  Tu-ma.  Its  port 
of  Wani-ura  is  thirty  miles  distant  from  Fusan,  and  often  shelters 


Map  of  the  Province  nearest  Japan. 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


205 


the  becalmed  or  storm-stayed  junks  which,  with  fair  wind  and 
weather,  can  make  the  ran  between  the  two  countries  in  a single 
day. 

From  a strategic  military  point  of  view,  the  Twin  Islands  are 
invaluable  to  the  mikado’s  empire,  guarding,  as  they  do,  the  sea 
of  Japan  like  a sentinel.  The  Russians  who  now  own  the  long 
island  at  the  upper  end  of  the  sea,  attempted,  in  1859,  to  obtain 
a footing  on  Tsushima.  They  built  barracks  and  planted  seed, 
with  every  indication  of  making  a permanent  occupation.  The 
timely  appearance  on  the  scene  of  a fleet  of  British  ships,  under 
Sir  James  Hope,  put  an  end  to  Russian  designs  on  Tsushima. 

A Japanese  waiter  reports  that  the  Kiung-sang  people  are 
rather  more  simple  in  their  habits,  less  corrupted  in  their  man- 
ners, and  their  ancient  customs  are  more  faithfully  preserved  than 
in  some  of  the  other  provinces.  There  is  little  of  luxury  and  less 
of  expensive  folly,  so  that  the  small  estates  or  property  are  faith- 
fully transmitted  from  father  to  son,  for  many  generations,  in  the 
same  families.  Studious  habits  prevail,  and  literature  flourishes. 
Often  the  young  men,  after  toiling  during  the  day,  give  the  even- 
ing to  reading  and  conversation,  for  which  admirable  practice  the 
native  language  has  a special  word.  Here  ladies  of  rank  are  not 
so  closely  shut  up  in-doors  as  in  other  provinces,  but  often  walk 
abroad,  accompanied  by  their  servants,  without  fear  of  insult.  In 
this  province  also  Buddhism  has  the  largest  number  of  adherents. 
Kion-chiu,  the  old  capital  of  Shinra,  was  the  centre  of  the  scholas- 
tic and  missionary  influences  of  the  Buddha  doctrine  in  Corea, 
and,  though  burned  by  the  Japanese  in  1597,  its  influence  still 
survives. 

The  people  are  strongly  attached  to  their  superstitions,  and 
difficult  to  change,  but  to  whatever  faith  they  are  once  converted 
they  are  steadfast  and  loyal.  The  numerous  nobles  who  dwell  in 
this  province,  belong  chiefly  to  the  Nam  In  party. 

KANG-WEN,  THE  RIVER- MEADOW  PROVINCE. 

Kang-wen  fronts  Japan  from  the  middle  of  the  eastern  coast, 
and  lies  between  Ham-kiung  and  Kiung-sang.  Its  name  means 
River  Meadow.  Within  its  area  are  found  the  sources  of  “ the 
river”  of  the  realm.  Though  perhaps  the  most  mountainous  of  all 
the  provinces,  it  contains  several  fertile  plains,  which  are  watered 
by  streams  flowing  mainly  to  the  west,  forming  the  Han  River, 


206 


COREA. 


which  crosses  the  entire  peninsula,  and  empties  into  the  Yellow 
Sea.  The  main  mountain  chain  of  the  country,  called  here  the 
Makira,  runs  near  the  coast,  leaving  the  greater  area  of  the  prov- 
ince to  the  westward.  The  larger  part  of  the  population,  the 
most  important  high  roads,  and  the  capital  city  Wen-chiu,  are  in 
the  western  division,  which  contains  twenty-six  districts,  the  east- 
ern division  having  seventeen.  The  official  census  gives  the  num- 
ber of  houses  at  93,000,  and  of  men  capable  of  bearing  arms 
44,000. 

Some  of  the  names  of  mountains  in  this  province  give  one  a 
general  idea  of  the  geographical  nomenclature  of  the  kingdom, 
reflecting,  as  it  does,  the  ideas  and  beliefs  of  the  people.  One 
peak  is  named  Yellow  Dragon,  another  the  Flying  Phoenix,  and 
another  the  Hidden  Dragon  (not  yet  risen  up  from  the  earth  on 
his  passage  to  the  clouds  or  to  heaven).  Hard  Metal,  Oxhead, 
Mountain  facing  the  Sun,  Cool  Valley,  Wild  Swamp,  White  Cloud, 
and  Peacock,  are  other  less  heathenish,  and  perhaps  less  poetical 
names.  One  range  is  said  to  have  twelve  hundred  peaks,  and  from 
another,  rivers  fall  down  like  snow  for  several  hundred  feet.  These 
“ snowy  rivers  ” are  cataracts.  Deer  are  very  plentiful,  and  the 
best  hartshorn  for  the  pharmacy  of  China  comes  from  these  parts. 
Out  in  the  sea,  about  a degree  and  a half  from  the  coast,  lies  an 
island,  called  by  the  Japanese  Matsu-shima,  or  Pine  Island,  by 
the  Coreans  U-lon-to,  and  by  Europeans,  Dagelet  This  island  was 
first  discovered  by  the  French  navigator,  La  Perouse,  in  June, 
1787.  In  honor  of  an  astronomer,  it  was  named  Dagelet  Island. 
“It  is  very  steep,  but  covered  with  fine  trees  from  the  sea-shore 
to  the  summit.  A rampart  of  bare  rock,  nearly  as  perpendicular 
as  a wall,  completely  surrounds  it,  except  seven  sandy  little  coves  at 
which  it  is  possible  to  land.”  The  grand  central  peak  towers  four 
thousand  feet  into  the  clouds.  Firs,  sycamores,  and  juniper  trees 
abound.  Sea-bears  and  seals  live  in  the  water,  and  the  few  poor 
Coreans  who  inhabit  the  island  dry  the  flesh  of  the  seals  and 
large  quantities  of  petrels  and  lialiotis,  or  sea-ears,  for  the  markets 
or  the  main  land.  The  island  is  occasionally  visited  by  Japanese 
junks  and  foreign  whaling  ships,  as  whales  are  plentiful  in  the  sur- 
rounding waters.  The  Japanese  obtained  the  timber  for  the  pub- 
lic and  other  buildings  at  their  new  settlement  at  Gensan  from 
this  island. 

The  Land  of  Morning  Calm  is,  by  all  accounts  of  travellers,  a 
land  of  beauty,  and  the  customs  and  literature  of  the  people 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


207 


prove  that  the  superb  and  inspiring  scenery  of  their  peninsula  is 
fully  appreciated  by  themselves.  Not  only  are  picnics  and  pleas- 
ure gatherings,  within  the  groves,  common  to  the  humbler  classes, 
but  the  wealthy  travel  great  distances  simply  to  enjoy  the  beauty 
of  marine  or  mountain  views.  Scholars  assemble  at  chosen  seats, 
having  fair  landscapes  before  them,  poets  seek  inspiration  under 
waterfalls,  and  the  bonzes,  understanding  the  awe-compelling  in- 
fluence of  the  contemplation  of  nature’s  grandeur,  plant  their 
monasteries  and  build  their  temples  on  lofty  mountain  heights. 
These  favorite  haunts  of  the  lovers  of  natural  beauty  are  as  well 
known  to  the  Coreans  as  Niagara  and  Yo  Semite  are  to  Ameri- 
cans, or  Chamouni  to  all  Europe.  The  places  in  which  the  glory 
of  the  Creator’s  works  may  be  best  beheld  are  the  theme  of 
ardent  discussion  and  competing  praise  with  the  people  of  each 
province.  The  local  guide-books,  itineraries,  and  gazetteers,  de- 
scant upon  the  merits  of  the  scenery,  for  which  each  of  the  eight 
divisions  is  renowned.  In  the  River-meadow  province,  the  eight 
most  lovely  “ sceneries  ” are  all  located  along  the  coast.  Begin- 
ning at  the  south,  and  taking  them  in  order  toward  the  north, 
they  are  the  following  : 

1.  The  house  on  Uru-chin,  a town  below  the  thirty-seventh 
parallel  of  latitude.  The  inn  is  called  “ The  House  of  the  Emer- 
ging Sun,”  because  here  the  sun  seems  to  rise  right  out  of  the 
waters  of  the  ocean.  In  front  of  the  coast  lies  an  island,  set  like 
a gem  in  the  sea.  The  view  of  the  rising  sun,  the  tints  of  sky, 
river,  waves,  land,  and  mountains  form  a vision  of  gorgeous  mag- 
nificence. 

2.  Hion-hai  (Tranquil  Sea).  Out  in  the  sea,  in  front  of  this 
village,  are  many  small  islands.  When  the  moon  rises,  they  seem 
to  be  floating  in  a sea  of  molten  silver.  The  finest  effect  is  en- 
joyed just  before  the  orb  is  fully  above  the  horizon.  In  many  of 
the  dwellings  of  the  men  of  rank  and  wealth,  there  is  a special 
room  set  apart  for  the  enjoyment  of  the  scenery,  upon  which  the 
apartment  looks.  Especially  is  this  the  case,  with  the  houses  of 
public  entertainment.  At  Hion-hai,  one  of  the  inns  from  which 
the  best  view  may  be  obtained  is  called  the  “ House  Fronting  the 
Moon.”  In  it  are  several  “looking-rooms.” 

3.  One  of  the  finest  effects  in  nature  is  the  combination  of 
fresh  fallen  snow  on  evergreens.  The  pure  white  on  the  deep 
green  is  peculiarly  pleasing  to  the  eye  of  the  Japanese,  who  use 
it  as  a popular  element  in  their  decorative  art,  in  silver  and  bronze, 


200 


COREA. 


in  embroidery,  painting,  and  lacquer.  The  Coreans  are  equally 
happy  in  gazing  upon  the  snow,  as  it  rests  on  the  deep  shadows 
of  the  pine,  or  the  delicate  hue  of  the  giant  grass  called  bamboo. 
Near  the  large  town  of  San-cho  is  a tower  or  house,  built  within 
view  of  a stream  of  water,  which  flows  in  winding  course  over  the 
rocks,  sparkling  beneath  the  foliage.  It  has  a scene-viewing  room 
to  which  people  resort  to  enjoy  the  “ chikusetsu,  ” or  snow  and 
bamboo  effect. 


4.  From  an  elevation  near  the  town  of  Kan-nun,  or  Bay  Hill, 
one  may  obtain  a pretty  view  of  the  groves  and  shrubbery  grow- 
ing upon  the  rocks.  During  the  spring  showers,  when  the  rain 
falls  in  a fine  mist,  and  the  fresh  vegetation  appears  in  a new  rich 
robe  of  green,  the  sight  is  very  charming. 

5.  Beneath  the  mound  at  An-an  the  river  flows  tranquilly, 
tinted  by  the  setting  sun.  The  sunsets  at  this  place  are  of  ex- 
quisite beauty. 

6.  At  the  old  castle  town  of  Kan-nun,  there  is  a room  named 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


209 


“ The  Chamber  between  the  Strong  Fortress  and  the  Tender  Ver- 
dure.” Here  the  valley  is  steep,  and  in  the  bosom  of  the  stream 
of  water  lie  “ floating  islands” — so  called  because  they  seem  to 
swim  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 

7.  Near  Ko-sion,  or  High  Fortress,  is  “ Three  Days  Bay,”  to 
which  lovers  of  the  picturesque  resort  on  summer  mornings,  to 
see  the  sun  rise,  and  on  autumnal  evenings,  to  watch  the  moon- 
light effects.  The  fishers’  boats  gliding  to  and  fro  over  the  gleam- 
ing waters  delight  the  eye. 

8.  At  Tsu-sen  is  the  “ Rock-loving  Chamber.”  Here,  among 
some  steep  rocks,  grow  trees  of  fantastic  form.  The  combination 
of  rock-scenery  and  foliage  make  the  charm  of  this  place,  to 
which  scholars,  artists,  and  travellers  resort.  In  spring  and  au- 
tumn, literary  parties  visit  the  chamber  dedicated  to  those  who 
love  the  rocks.  There,  abandoning  themselves  to  literary  revels, 
they  compose  poems,  hold  scholarly  reunions,  or  ramble  about  in 
search  of  health  or  pleasure. 

The  people  of  Kang-wen  are  industrious  and  intelligent,  with 
less  energy  of  body  than  the  southern  provincials,  but  like  their 
northern  countrymen,  they  have  the  reputation  of  being  bold, 
obstinate,  and  quarrelsome.  In  time  of  bad  harvests  or  lax  gov- 
ernment, “ tramps  ” form  bands  of  thirty  or  fifty,  and  roam  the 
country,  stealing  food  or  valuables  from  the  villages.  Local  thieves 
are  sufficiently  abundant.  During  the  heavy  snows  of  winter, 
people  travel  the  mountain  paths  on  snow-shoes,  and  in  excep- 
tional places,  cut  tunnels  under  the  snow  for  communication  from 
house  to  house.  Soldiers  test  then-  strength  by  pulling  strong 
bows,  and  laborers  by  carrying  heavy  burdens  on  their  shoulders. 
Strong  men  shoulder  six  hundred  pounds  of  copper,  or  two  bales 
of  white  rice  (260  pounds  each.)  The  women  of  this  province  are 
said  to  be  the  most  beautiful  in  Corea.  Even  from  ancient  times, 
lovely  damsels  from  this  part  of  the  peninsula,  sent  to  the  harem 
of  the  Chinese  emperor,  were  greatly  admired.  Christianity  has 
made  little  progress  in  Kang-wen,  only  a few  towns  in  the  south- 
ern part  being  marked  with  a cross  on  the  French  missionary  map. 
In  the  most  ancient  times  the  Chinhan  tribes  occupied  this  por- 
tion of  Corea.  From  the  Christian  era,  until  the  tenth  century, 
it  was  alternately  held  by  Kokorai,  or  Korai,  and  by  Shinra. 


14 


210 


COREA. 


HAM-KIUNG,  OR  COMPLETE  VIEW. 

Ham-kiung  is  that  part  of  Corean  territory  which  touches  the 
boundary  of  Russia.  Only  a few  years  ago  all  the  neighbors  along 
the  land  frontiers  of  Cho-sen  were  Chinese  subjects.  Now  she 
has  the  European  within  rifle-shot  of  her  shores.  Only  the  Tu- 
men  River  separates  the  Muscovites  from  the  once  hermits  of  the 
peninsula.  The  southern  boundary  of  Russia  in  Asia,  which  had 
been  thrown  farther  south  after  every  Em-opean  war  with  China, 


touched  Corea  in  1858.  What  was  before  an  elastic  line,  has  in 
each  instance  become  the  Czar’s  “ scientific  frontier.”  By  the 
supplementary  treaty  of  Aigun,  March  28,  1858,  Count  Mouravieff 
“ rectified  ” the  far  eastern  line  of  the  Czar’s  domain,  by  demand- 
ing and  obtaining  that  vast  and  fertile  territory  lying  south  of  the 
Amur  River,  and  between  the  Gulf  of  Tartary  and  the  river  Usuri, 
having  a breadth  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  This  remote, 
but  very  desirable,  slice  of  Asia,  is  rich  in  gold  and  silk,  coal  and 
cotton,  rice  and  tobacco.  With  energy  and  enterprise,  the  Rus- 
sian government  at  once  encouraged  emigration,  placed  steamers 
built  in  New  York  on  the  Usuri  River  and  Lake  Hanka,  laid  out 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


211 


212 


COREA. 


the  ports  of  Vladivostok,  and  Possiet,  constructed  a telegraph 
from  the  Baltic  Sea  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  enforced  order 
among  the  semi-civilized  and  savage  tribes.  The  name  of  the 
new  Russian  territory  between  the  Amur  River  and  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk,  is  Primorskai'a,  with  Vladivostok  for  the  capital,  which 
is  finely  situated  on  Peter  the  Great  or  Victoria  Bay.  Immense 
fortifications  have  been  planned,  and  the  place  is  to  be  made  the 
Sebastopol  of  the  Czar’s  Pacific  possessions.  This  gigantic  work 
was  begun  under  the  charge  of  the  late  Admiral  Popoff,  whose 
name  has  been  given  to  the  iron-turreted  war  vessels  of  which  he 
was  the  inventor,  and  to  a mountain  in  Central  Corea.  Possiet  is 
within  twenty-five  miles  of  the  Corean  frontier.  It  is  connected 
with  Nagasaki  by  electric  cable.  In  the  event  of  a war  between 
China  and  Russia,  or  even  of  Anglo-Russian  hostilities,  the  Czar 
would  most  probably  make  Corea  the  basis  of  operations  against 
China ; for  Corea  is  to  China  as  Canada  is  to  the  United  States,  or, 
as  the  people  say,  “ the  lips  of  China’s  teeth.” 

Russia  needs  a coast  line  in  the  Pacific  with  seaports  that  are 
not  frozen  up  in  winter,  and  her  ambition  is  to  be  a naval  power. 
While  England  checks  her  designs  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  in 
Europe,  her  desire  is  great  and  her  need  is  greater  to  have  this 
defenceless  peninsula  on  her  eastern  borders.  The  Coreans  know 
too  well  that  the  possession  of  their  country  by  “ Russia  the  rav- 
enous ” is  considered  a necessity  of  the  absorption  policy  of 
Peter  the  Great’s  successors.  The  Tuinen  River,  which  rises  at 
the  foot  of  the  Ever- White  Mountains  and  separates  Corea  from 
Russia,  is  about  two  hundred  miles  in  length.  It  drains  a moun- 
tainous and  rainy  country.  Ordinarily  it  is  shallow  and  quiet ; 
but  in  spring,  or  after  heavy  rains,  and  swollen  by  a great  number 
of  tributaries,  its  current  becomes  very  turbulent  and  powerful. 
In  winter  it  is  frozen  over  during  several  months,  and  hence  is 
easily  crossed.  Thousands  of  Coreans  fleeing  from  famine,  or 
from  the  oppression  of  government  officials,  Christians  perse- 
cuted for  their  faith,  criminals  seeking  to  escape  the  clutches  of 
the  law,  emigrants  desirous  of  bettering  their  condition,  have 
crossed  this  river  and  settled  in  Primorskai'a,  until  they  now 
number,  in  all,  about  eight  thousand.  The  majority  of  them  are 
peasants  from  Ham-kiung,  and  know  little  of  the  southern  parts 
of  their  country.  There  is,  however,  an  “underground  railroad” 
by  which  persecuted  Christians  can  fly  for  refuge  to  Russian  pro- 
tection. Their  houses  are  built  of  stout  timbers,  wattled  with 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


213 


cane,  plastered  with  mud,  and  surrounded  with  a neat  fencing 
of  interlaced  boughs.  They  cover  their  houses  with  strips  of 
bamboo,  well  fastened  down  by  thatching.  The  chimney  is  de- 
tached from  the  house,  and  consists  of  a hollow  tree.  Under  the 
warmed  floor  is  the  usual  system  of  flues,  by  which  the  house  is 
kept  comfortable  in  winter,  and  every  atom  of  fuel  utilized.  Theii 
food  is  millet,  com,  venison,  and  beef.  They  pare  and  dry  melon- 
like fruits,  cutting  them  up  in  strips  for  winter  use.  They  dress 
in  the  national  color,  white,  using  quilted  cotton  clothes.  They 
make  good  use  of  bullock-carts,  and  smoke  tobacco  habitually. 
The  national  product — thick  strong  paper — is  put  to  a great  va- 
riety of  uses,  and  a few  sheets  dressed  with  oil,  serve  as  windows. 

Some  of  the  Russian  merchants  have  married  Corean  women, 
who  seem  to  make  good  wives.  Their  offspring  are  carefully  brought 
up  in  the  Christian  faith.  Some  of  these  Corean  children  have 
been  sent  to  the  American  Home  at  Yokohama,  where  the  ladies 
of  the  Woman’s  Union  Missionary  Society  of  America  have  given 
them  an  education  in  English.  Through  the  Russian  possessions, 
the  Corean  liberal,  Kin  Rinshio,  made  his  escape.  From  this 
man  the  Japanese  officials  learned  so  much  of  the  present  state  of 
the  peninsula,  and  by  his  aid  those  in  the  War  Department  at 
Tukio  were  enabled  to  construct  and  publish  so  valuable  a map 
of  Corea,  the  accuracy  of  which  astonishes  his  fellow-country- 
men. The  Russians  have  taken  the  pains  to  educate  the  people  in 
schools,  and,  judging  from  the  faces  and  neat  costumes,  as  seen  in 
photographs  taken  on  the  spot,  they  enjoy  being  taught.  The 
object  of  instruction  is  not  only  to  civilize  them  as  loyal  subjects 
of  the  Czar,  but  also  to  convert  them  to  the  Russian  form  of  Chris- 
tianity. In  this  work  the  priests  and  schoolmasters  have  had  con- 
siderable success.  There  are  but  few  Coreans  north  of  the  Tumen 
who  cannot  read  and  write,  and  the  young  men  employed  as 
clerks  are  good  linguists.  A number  of  them  are  fishermen,  liv- 
ing near  the  coast.  Most  of  the  converts  to  the  Greek  church 
are  gathered  at  Vladivostok. 

So  great  has  been  the  fear  and  jealousy  felt  by  Corea  toward 
Russia,  that  during  the  last  two  generations  the  land  along  the 
boundary  river  has  been  laid  desolate.  The  banks  were  picketed 
with  sentinels,  and  death  was  the  penalty  of  crossing  from  shore 
to  shore.  Many  interesting  relics  of  the  ancient  greatness  of 
Corea  still  abound  in  Manchuria  and  on  Russian  soil  Travellers 
have  visited  these  ruins,  now  overgrown  with  large  forest  trees, 


214 


COREA. 


and  have  given  descriptions  and  measurements  of  them.  One  for- 
tification was  found  to  cover  six  acres,  with  walls  over  thirty  feet 
in  height,  protected  by  a moat  and  two  outer  ditches,  with  gate- 
ways guarded  by  curtains.  In  the  ruins  were  elaborately  carved 
fragments  of  columns,  stone  idols  or  statues,  with  bits  of  armor 
and  weapons.  Some  of  these  now  silent  ruins  have  sustained 
famous  sieges,  and  once  blazed  with  watch-fires  and  echoed  to 
battle-shouts.  They  are  situated  on  spurs  or  ends  of  mountain 
chains,  commanding  plains  and  valleys,  testifying  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  strategic  skill  possessed  by  their  ancient  builders. 

The  Shan-yan  Alin,  range  on  range,  visible  from  the  Corean  side 
of  the  river,  are  between  eight  thousand  and  twelve  thousand  feet 
high,  and  are  snow-covered ‘during  most  of  the  year.  The  name 
means  Long-white,  or  Ever- White  Mountains,  the  Chinese  Shang- 
hai, meaning  the  same  thing.  Two  of  the  peaks  are  named  after 
Chinese  emperors.  Paik-tu,  or  White  Head,  is  a sacred  mountain 
famous  throughout  the  country,  and  is  the  theme  of  enthusiastic 
description  by  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Corean  writers,  the  former 
comparing  it  to  a vase  of  white  porcelain,  with  a scolloped  rim. 
Its  flora  is  mostly  white,  and  its  fauna  are  reputed  to  be  white- 
haired,  never  injuring  or  injured  by  man.  It  is  the  holy  abode  of 
a wliite-robed  goddess,  who  presides  over  the  mountain.  She  is 
represented  as  a woman  holding  a child  in  her  arms,  after  a le- 
gendary character,  known  in  Corean  lore  and  Chinese  historical 
novels.  Formerly  a temple  dedicated  to  her  spirit  was  built,  and 
for  a long  time  wns  presided  over  by  a priestess.  The  Coz-ean 
Buddhists  assign  to  this  mountain,  the  home  of  Manchusri,  one  of 
their  local  deities,  or  incarnations  of  Buddha.  Lying  in  the  main 
group  of  the  range,  over  eight  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  is  a 
vast  lake  surrounded  by  naked  rocks;  probably  an  extinct  crater. 
Large  portions  of  the  mountain  consist  of  white  limestone,  which, 
with  its  snow,  from  which  it  is  free  only  during  two  months  of  the 
year,  gives  it  its  name. 

Another  imposing  range  of  mountains  follows  the  contour  of 
the  coast,  and  thus  presents  that  lofty  and  magnificent  front  of 
forest-clad  highland  which  strikes  the  admiration  of  navigators. 
Other  conspicuous  peaks  are  named  by  the  natives,  Continuous 
Virtue,  The  Peak  of  the  Thousand  Buddhas,  Cloud-toucher,  Sword 
Mountain,  Lasting  Peace,  Heaven-reaching. 

Twenty-four  rivers  water  and  drain  this  mountainous  province. 
The  coast  of  Ham-kiung  down  to  the  fortieth  parallel  is  devoid 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


215 


of  any  important  harbors.  A glance  at  a foreign  chart  shows  that 
numerous  French,  Russian,  and  English  navigators  have  visited  it, 
and  gained  precarious  renown  by  sprinkling  foreign  names  upon 
its  capes  and  headlands.  At  the  south,  Yung-hing,  or  Brough- 
ton’s Bay,  so  named  by  the  gallant  British  captain  in  1797,  is 
well  known  for  its  fine  harbors  and  its  high  tides.  It  contains 
a small  archipelago,  while  the  country  around  it  is  the  most  popu- 
lous and  fertile  portion  of  the  province.  Port  Lazareff,  east  of 


Yon-fun,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Dungan  River,  and  west  of 
Virginie  Bay,  is  well  known.  A large  Japanese  army  under  Kato 
occupied  this  territory  during  the  year  1592. 

By  the  recent  treaty  with  Japan,  the  port  of  Gensan,  front- 
ing on  the  south  of  Broughton’s  Bay,  was  opened  for  trade  and 
commerce,  from  May  1,  1880.  Gensan  lies  near  the  thirty-ninth 
parallel  of  latitude.  Near  the  shore  is  the  island  of  Chotoku,  and 
within  the  twenty-five  mile  circuit  allowed  to  Japanese  merchants 


216 


COREA. 


for  general  travel,  or  free  movement,  is  the  old  castle-town  of  To- 
kugen.  The  tomb  of  the  founder  of  the  reigning  dynasty  of  Cho- 
sen is  situated  near  the  bay  and  is  a highly  venerated  spot.  As  the 
dragon  is  in  native  ideas  the  type  of  all  that  is  strong,  mighty, 
and  renowned,  the  place  is  named  the  “ Rise  of  the  Dragon.”  One 
of  the  high  roads  of  the  kingdom  traverses  the  strip  of  land  skirt- 
ing the  sea  from  north  to  south  throughout  the  province,  touch- 
ing the  water  at  certain  places.  The  greater  part  of  the  people 
dwelling  in  the  province  live  along  this  road.  The  interior,  being 
a mass  of  mountains,  is  thinly  inhabited,  and  the  primeval  for- 
ests are  populated  chiefly  by  tigers  and  other  beasts  of  prey. 

In  the  current  scouring  the  coast  of  Ham-kiung  swim  unnum- 
bered shoals  of  herring,  ribbon  fish,  and  other  species  inhabiting 
the  open  seas.  After  these  follow  in  close  pursuit  schools  of 
whales,  which  fatten  on  them  as  prey.  Thousands  of  natives  from 
the  interior  and  the  shore  villages  come  down  in  the  season  and 
fish.  They  often  stand  knee-deep  in  the  water,  looking  like  long 
rows  of  the  snowy  heron  of  a rice-swamp,  in  their  white  clothes. 
They  use  a kind  of  catamaran  or  raft  for  fishing  and  for  surf 
navigation,  which  is  very  serviceable.  They  sometimes  hunt  the 
whales  at  sea,  or  capture  them  in  shoal  water,  driving  them  in 
shore  till  stranded.  Sticking  in  the  bodies  of  these  huge  crea- 
tures have  been  found  darts  and  harpoons  of  European  whalers. 
This  chase  of  the  herring  by  the  whales  was  noticed,  even  in  the 
extreme  south  of  Corea,  by  Hamel,  and  by  shipwrekced  Dutch- 
men. Since  the  present  year,  Japanese  whale-hunters  have  been 
engaged  by  Coreans  to  improve  their  methods  of  catching  this 
huge  sea-mammal. 

, The  capital  city  of  this  largest  of  the  provinces,  and  the 
residence  of  the  governor,  is  Ham-hung,  situated  near  the  fortieth 
parallel  of  north  latitude.  According  to  a native  geography  this 
province  contains  103,200  houses,  which  gives  a population  varying 
from  309,600  to  516,000  souls.  There  are  enrolled  and  capable  of 
military  service  (on  paper)  87,170  men.  For  administrative  pur- 
poses the  province  is  divided  into  divisions,  the  northern  and  the 
southern.  There  are  fifteen  walled  cities. 

Formerly,  and  until  the  Russians  occupied  the  Primorskaia 
territory,  an  annual  or  bi-annual  fair  was  held  at  the  Corean  city  of 
Kion-wen,  which  lies  close  to  the  border.  The  Manchiu  and  Chi- 
nese merchants  bartered  tea,  rice,  pipes,  gold,  and  furs  for  the 
Corean  ginseng,  hides,  and  household  implements.  Furs  of  a 


THE  EIGHT  PROVINCES. 


217 


thousand  sorts,  cotton  stuff,  silks,  artificial  flowers,  and  choice 
woods,  changed  hands  rapidly,  the  traffic  lasting  but  two  or  three 
days,  and  sometimes  only  one  day,  from  noon  until  sunset.  Such 
was  the  bustle  and  confusion  that  these  fairs  often  terminated  in 
a free  fight,  which  reminds  one  of  the  famous  Donnybrook.  One 
of  the  articles  most  profitable  to  the  Coreans  was  their  cast-off 
hail’.  Immense  quantities  cut  from  the  heads  of  young  persons, 
and  especially  by  those  about  to  be  married,  were  and  are  still 
sold  by  the  Chinese  to  lengthen  out  their  “pig-tails” — that  mark 
of  subjection  to  their  Manchiu  conquerors.  During  the  time  of 
trade  no  Chinese  or  Manchiu  was  allowed  to  enter  a Corean  house, 
all  the  streets  and  doorways  being  guarded  by  soldiers,  who  at  the 
end  of  the  fair  drove  out  any  lingering  Chinese,  who,  if  not  soon 
across  the  border,  were  forced  to  go  at  the  point  of  the  spear. 
Any  foreigner  found  inside  the  border  at  other  seasons  might  be, 
and  often  was,  ruthlessly  murdered. 

The  nearest  town  beyond  the  frontier,  at  which  the  Chinese 
merchants  were  wont  to  assemble,  is  Hun-chun. 1 This  loophole  of 
entrance  into  Corea,  corresponded  to  Ai-chiu  at  the  Yalu  River  in 
the  west.  As  at  the  latter  place,  foreigners  and  Christian  natives 
have  attempted  to  penetrate  the  forbidden  country  at  Kion-wen, 
but  have  been  unsuccessful. 

An  outline  of  the  political  history  of  the  part  of  the  peninsula 
now  called  Ham-kiung  shows  that  many  masters  have  in  hum 
been  its  possessors.  When  the  old  kingdom  of  Clio-sen,  which 
comprehended  Liao  Tung  and  that  part  of  the  peninsula  between 
the  Ta-tong  and  the  Tumen  Rivers,  was  broken  up  toward  the  end 
of  the  first  century,  the  northern  half  of  what  is  now  Ham-kiung  was 
called  Oju  or  Woju,  the  southern  portion  forming  part  of  the  little 
state  of  Wei,  or  Wlii.  These  were  both  conquered  by  Kokorai, 
which  held  dominion  until  the  seventh  century,  when  it  was 
crushed  by  the  Chinese  emperors  of  the  Han  dynasty,  and  the 
land  fell  under  the  sway  of  Shinra,  whose  borders  extended  in 
the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  from  Eastern  Sea  to  the  Tumen 
River.  After  Shinra,  arose  Korai  and  Cho-sen,  the  founders  of 
both  states  being  sprung  from  this  region  and  of  the  hardy  race 
inhabiting  it.  From  very  ancient  times,  the  boundaries  of  this 
province,  being  almost  entirely  natural  and  consisting  of  mountain, 
river,  and  sea,  have  remained  unchanged. 

1 Hun-chun  is  in  Chinese  Manchuria.  The  Russian  possessions  south  of  Vic- 
toria Bay  extend  but  a few  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tumen. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 


THE  KING  AND  ROYAL  PALACE. 

The  title  of  majesty  in  Cho-sen  is  Hap-mun.  In  full  robes  of 
state  the  sovereign  wears  a silken  garment,  the  gift  of  his  suzerain, 
the  Emperor  of  China.  It  is  embroidered  with  dragons,  the  em- 
blems of  regal  power.  His  throne  has  riong  or  dragons  sculptured 
around  it.  The  steps  leading  to  it  are  called  “ the  staircase  of 
jade.”  The  cord  which  is  used  to  tie  criminals  has  a dragon’s 
head  at  the  ends,  to  signify  that  the  officers  act  in  obedience  to 
the  royal  command.  Chief  of  the  regalia  of  Corean  sovereignty 
is  the  Great  Seal,  the  possession  of  which  makes  the  holder  the 
actual  sovereign  of  Cho-sen.  This  seal,  of  which  we  shall  hear 
again,  seems  to  have  been  captured  by  the  French  in  1866.  In 
time  of  war  or  public  danger,  the  royal  library,  archives  and  re- 
galia are  sent  to  Kang-wa  Island  for  safety.  Ridel  wrote  in  1866  : 

“ In  another  case,  they  found  a marble  tortoise,  sculptured  in 
perfect  art,  upon  the  pedestal  of  which  was  the  great  seal  of  state. 
This  royal  cartouche  was  to  the  simple  Corean  folk  neither  visible 
nor  approachable,  the  possession  of  which  has  sufficed  many  times 
to  transfer  the  royal  authority  and  to  terminate  revolutions.  It  was 
the  regalia  of  Corean  sovereignty.  The  one  which  he  saw  was  new 
and  appeared  never  to  have  been  used.” 

The  sovereign,  in  speaking  of  himself,  uses  the  term  “ Hap- 
mun,”  which  is  the  equivalent  of  the  imperial  “We  ” of  Asiatic 
state  documents.  The  word  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  employed 
by,  or  for,  other  rulers — Pharaoh,  Sublime  Porte,  Mikado,  all  of 
which  mean  the  Grand,  Chief,  or  First,  Gate  of  all  the  gates  in  the 
country.  The  first  character  in  Hap-mun  is,  however,  different 
from  that  in  Mikado,  or  Honorable  Gate,  but  the  hap  is  honorific. 
No  other  person  in  the  land,  official  or  private,  is  allowed  to  use 
this  compound  word  in  speech  or  writing  as  applying  to  anyone 
except  the  king.  Even  in  transcribing  the  term  hap,  a stroke 
must  be  omitted  out  of  respect  to  the  august  personage  to  whom 


THE  KING  AND  ROYAL  PALACE. 


213 

• 

alone  it  is  applied.  At  his  death,  three  cups  of  rice  are  set  out  in 
the  households  in  memoriam.  This  ceremony  must  not  be  imi- 
tated for  any  other  person.  So  also,  if  the  character  with  which 
the  name  of  the  ruling  emperor  of  China  is  written  be  found  in  that 
of  a public  person,  a gateway,  a palace  or  edifice  in  Seoul,  the 
graphic  sign  must  be  temporarily  changed,  though  the  pronuncia- 
tion remains  the  same.  This  same  system  of  graduated  honors, 
of  which,  in  Corea,  the  king  is  the  culmination,  slopes  down  to 
the  common  people,  and  is  duly  protected  by  law. 

The  sovereign’s  person  is  hedged  round  with  a divinity  that  has 
an  antipathy  to  iron.  This  metal  must  ne^er  touch  his  august  body, 
and  rather  than  have  an  abscess  lanced,  the  king  Cheng-jong,  in 
1800,  died  from  the  effects  of  the  disease.  No  ordinary  mortal 
must  touch  him,  and  if  by  accident  this  is  done,  the  individual 
must  ever  afterward  wear  a red  silk  cord.  Notwithstanding  such 
regulated  veneration  for  the  Hap-mun’s  person,  the  royal  harem 
numbers  several  hundred  inmates,  duly  presided  over  by  eunuchs. 
None  but  the  king  can  drink  out  of  a cup  made  of  gold,  and  a 
heavy  penalty  is  visited  upon  all  who  presume  to  do  so.  When  out- 
side the  palace,  the  three  signs  of  the  sovereign’s  power  of  life  and 
death  over  his  subjects,  are  the  axe,  sabre,  and  trident.  The  huge 
violet  fan  and  red  umbrella  are  likewise  borne  before  him.  The 
Chinese  envoy  is  always  escorted  by  soldiers  bearing  the  three  em- 
blems, and  by  a band  of  musicians.  When  the  Hap-mun,  or  king,  is 
in  his  minority,  the  queen,  who  is  regent,  sits  behind  a curtain  in  the 
council  of  ministers,  and  takes  part  in  the  discussions.  When  she 
is  pregnant,  the  slaughter  of  beeves  is  prohibited  during  the  space 
of  three  months.  This  is  done  in  order  “ to  honor  heaven  by 
abstinence,”  and  may  also  be  ordered  to  procure  rain.  Once  every 
year,  the  queen  entertains  at  her  palace  some  worthy  woman  in 
humble  life,  who  has  reached  the  advanced  age  of  eighty  years.  The 
king  likewise  shows  favor  to  old  men  in  the  lower  walks  of  life. 
Whenever  an  auspicious  event  happens,  or  good  fortune  befalls 
the  kingdom,  all  the  officials  over  seventy,  and  the  common  people 
over  eighty  years  of  age,  are  feasted  at  the  expense  of  the  gov- 
ernment. When  the  first  male  child  is  born  to  the  king,  criminals 
are  pardoned,  and  general  festivity  is  observed.  The  birthdays  of 
the  royal  pair  are  celebrated  every  year.  The  royal  princes  are 
supposed  to  have  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  politics,  and  any 
activity  in  matters  of  government  on  their  part  is  jealously  resented 
by  the  nobles,  who  form  the  political  parties. 


220 


COREA. 


The  Royal  Castle  contains  over  three  acres  (15,202  square  yards), 
surrounded  by  a wall  twenty  feet  high,  and  formerly  by  a moat, 
now  filled  up,  measuring  fifty  feet  wide  or  less.  It  is  crossed  by 
stone  bridges  in  several  places.  This  castled  palace  is  called  the 
“Place  of  Government,”  and  is  divided  into  two  parts  called  the 
“ East  and  West  ” palace.  The  East,  or  Lower  Palace,  is  the  resi- 
dence of  the  king  and  is  so  called  because  situated  on  level  land. 
The  Western  palace  is  used  for  the  reception  of  the  Chinese  am- 
bassadors. The  gates  of  the  outer  city  proper,  and  inner  city,  or 
palace,  ai’e  named  in  high-sounding  phrase,  such  as  “ Beneficent 
Reception,”  “Exalted  Politeness,”  “Perfect  Change,”  “Entrance 
of  Virtue,”  and  the  throne-room  is  styled  “The  Hall  of  the  Throne 
of  the  Humane  Government.”  The  Chinese  ambassador  of  1866 
spent  the  night  in  that  part  of  the  royal  residence  called  “ The 
Palace  Reserved  for  the  South,” — “ the  south”  here  evidently  re- 
ferring to  the  imperial  favor,  or  the  good  graces,  of  the  emperor. 

A marked  difference  concerning  “the  freedom  of  the  city”  is 
noticed  in  the  relative  treatment  of  the  two  embassies.  While  the 
entire  body  of  Coreans,  dignitaries,  servants,  merchants,  and  cart- 
men  enter  Peking,  and  all  circulate  freely  in  the  streets  among  the 
people,  the  Chinese  envoy  to  Seoul,  must  leave  his  suite  at  the 
frontier,  and  proceed  to  the  capital  with  but  a few  servants,  and 
while  there  dwell  in  seclusion.  After  the  long  and  rough  journey 
through  Shin-king  and  Corea,  the  Chinese  envoy  in  1866  stayed  less 
than  three  days  in  Seoul,  and  most  of  the  time  in-doors.  The  Jap- 
anese who,  in  1616,  were  feasted  in  some  part  of  the  Eastern  palace, 
describe  it  as  being  handsomely  furnished,  with  the  walls  gilded 
and  painted  with  landscapes,  beasts,  birds,  and  flowers,  with  artis- 
tic effects  in  gold-dust  and  leaf.  The  royal  family  live  each  in 
separate  buildings,  those  above  the  ninth  degree  of  relationship 
reside  inside  the  enclosure,  all  others  live  beyond  the  wall  in  the 
city.  When  the  wife  of  the  king  has  a child,  she  dwells  apart  in 
a separate  building.  The  queen  is  selected  from  among  the  old 
and  most  loyal  families  of  the  nobility.  The  palace  pages,  who 
attend  the  king  day  and  night,  number  thirty.  There  are  also 
three  hundred  court  ladies,  and  eunuchs  are  among  the  regularly- 
appointed  officers  of  the  court.  The  royal  archives  and  library 
form  an  interesting  portion  of  the  royal  residence.  Part  of  this 
library,  when  removed  to  Kang-wa  in  1866,  was  captured  by  the 
French.  Bishop  Ridel  wrote  of  it,  “ The  library  is  very  rich, 
consisting  of  two  or  three  thousand  books  printed  in  Chinese. 


THE  KING  AND  ROYAL  PALACE. 


2 21 


with  numerous  illustrations  upon  beautiful  paper,  all  well  labeled, 
for  the  most  part  in  many  volumes  hooped  together  with  copper 
bands,  the  covers  being  of  green  or  crimson  silk.  I notice  among 
other  things  the  ancient  history  of  Corea  in  sixty  volumes.  "What 
was  most  curious  of  all  was  a book  formed  of  tablets  of  marble, 
with  characters  in  gold  encrusted  in  the  marble,  folding  upon  one 
another  like  the  leaves  of  a screen,  upon  hinges  of  gilded  copper, 
and  each  tablet  protected  by  a cushion  of  scarlet  silk,  the  whole 
placed  in  a handsome  casket  made  of  copper,  which  was  in  its 
turn  enclosed  in  a box  of  wood  painted  red,  with  chased  orna- 
ments in  gilt  copper.  These  square  tablets  formed  a volume  of  a 
dozen  pages.  They  contain,  as  some  say,  the  moral  laws  of  the 
country,  but  according  to  others,  whose  opinion  is  more  probable, 
the  honors  accorded  the  kings  of  Corea  by  the  Emperor  of  China. 
The  Coreans  set  great  store  by  it.” 

A custom,  similar  to  the  old  “curfew”  of  England  prevails  in 
the  capital.  The  great  city  bell  is  struck  at  sunset,  after  which 
male  citizens  are  not  allowed  to  go  out  of  their  houses  even  to 
visit  their  neighbors.  If  such  nocturnal  prowlers  are  caught,  they 
run  the  risk  of  receiving  the  bastinado  on  their  legs.  At  eight 
o’clock  another  three  strokes  are  given  on  the  bell.  At  the  hours 
of  midnight,  and  at  two  and  four  a.m.  the  drum  is  struck,  and  the 
brass  cymbals  sounded.  At  these  signals  the  watchmen  or  guards 
of  the  palace  are  relieved.  The  night-watch  consists  of  ten  reliefs 
of  eighteen  each.  Twenty  stand  guard  at  midnight,  thirty  at  two 
a.m.,  twenty  at  four  a.m.,  and  ten  at  six  a.m.  There  are  also  extra 
reliefs  with  their  officers  ready.  The  sentinels  change  after  giving 
the  pass- word.  The  military  garrison  of  the  city  is  divided  into 
five  portions,  or  four  in  addition  to  the  household  or  palace 
troops.  This  is  the  modem  form  of  the  old  division  of  Kokorai, 
into  five  tribes  or  clans. 

There  are  several  noted  holidays,  on  which  the  curfew  law  is 
suspended,  and  the  people  are  allowed  to  be  out  freely  at  night. 
These  are  the  first  and  the  last  day  of  the  year,  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  day  of  the  first  month,  and  the  fifteenth  of  August. 

Even  under  a despotism  there  are  means  by  which  the  people 
win  and  enjoy  a certain  measure  of  liberty.  The  monarch  hears 
the  complaints  of  his  subjects.  Close  communication  between  the 
palace  and  populace  is  kept  up  by  means  of  the  pages  employed 
at  the  court,  or  through  officers,  who  are  sent  out  as  the  king’s 
spies  all  over  the  country.  An  E-sa,  or  commissioner,  who  is  to 


222 


COREA. 


be  sent  to  a distant  province  to  ascertain  the  popular  feeling,  or 
to  report  the  conduct  of  certain  officers,  is  also  called  “ The  Mes- 
senger on  the  Dark  Path.”  He  receives  sealed  orders  from  the 
king,  which  he  must  not  open  till  beyond  the  city  walls.  Then, 
without  even  going  to  his  own  house,  he  must  set  out  for  his  des- 
tination, the  government  providing  his  expenses.  He  bears  the 
seal  of  his  commission,  a silver  plate  having  the  figure  of  a horse 
engraved  on  it.  In  some  cases  he  has  the  power  of  life  and  death 
in  his  hands.  Yet,  even  the  Messenger  of  the  Dark  Path  is  not 
free  from  espionage,  for  after  him  forthwith  follows  his  “double” 
— the  yashi  or  Night  Messenger,  who  reports  on  the  conduct  of 
the  royal  inspector  and  also  on  the  affairs  of  each  province 
through  which  he  passes.  The  whereabouts  of  these  emissaries 
are  rarely  discoverable  by  the  people,  as  they  travel  in  strict  dis- 
guise, and  unknown.  Tliis  system  corresponds  almost  exactly  to 
that  of  the  omutsuke  (eye-appliers),  for  many  centuries  in  use  in 
Japan,  but  abolished  by  the  mikado’s  government  at  the  revolu- 
tion of  18G8.  It  was  by  means  of  these  E-sa  or  spies  that  many 
of  the  Corean  Christians  of  rank  were  marked  for  destruction. 
The  system,  though  abominable  in  free  countries,  is  yet  an  excel- 
lent medium  between  the  throne  and  the  subject,  and  serves  as  a 
wholesome  check  on  official  rapine  and  cruelty. 

The  king  rarely  leaves  the  palace  to  go  abroad  in  the  city  or 
country.  When  he  does,  it  is  a great  occasion  which  is  previously 
announced  to  the  public.  The  roads  are  swept  clean  and  guarded 
to  prevent  traffic  or  passage  while  the  royal  cortege  is  moving. 
All  doors  must  be  shut  and  the  owner  of  each  house  is  obliged  to 
kneel  before  his  threshold  with  a broom  and  dust-pan  in  his  hand 
as  emblems  of  obeisance.  All  windows,  especially  the  upper  ones, 
must  be  sealed  with  slips  of  paper,  lest  some  one  should  look 
down  upon  his  majesty.  Those  who  think  they  have  received 
unjust  punishment  enjoy  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  sovereign. 
They  stand  by  the  roadside  tapping  a small  flat  drum  of  hide 
stretched  on  a hoop  like  a battledore.  The  king  as  he  passes 
hears  the  prayer  or  receives  the  written  petition  held  in  a split 
bamboo.  Often  he  investigates  the  grievance.  If  the  complaint 
is  groundless  the  petitioner  is  apt  to  lose  his  head.  The  proces- 
sion for  pleasure  or  a journey,  as  it  leaves  the  palace,  is  one  of  the 
grandest  spectacles  the  natives  ever  witness.  His  body-guard  and 
train  amount  to  many  thousand  persons.  There  are  two  sedan 
chairs  made  exactly  alike,  and  in  which  of  them  the  king  is  riding 


THE  KING  AND  ROYAL  PALACE. 


223 


no  one  knows  except  the  highest  ministers.  They  must  never  he 
turned  round,  but  have  a door  to  open  at  both  ends.  The  music 
used  on  such  occasions  is — to  a Corean  ear — of  a quiet  kind,  and 
orders  are  given  along  the  line  by  signals  made  with  pennons.  In 
case  of  sudden  emergencies,  when  it  is  neccessary  to  convey  an 
order  from  the  real’  to  the  front  or  far  forward  of  the  line,  the 
message  is  sent  by  means  of  an  arrow,  which,  with  the  writing  at- 
tached, is  shot  from  one  end  of  the  line  to  the  other. 

Five  caparisoned  horses  with  embroidered  saddles  precede  the 
royal  sedan.  The  great  dragon-flag,  which  is  about  fourteen  feet 
square,  mounted  in  a socket  and  strapped  on  the  back  of  a strong 
fresh  horse — with  four  guy  ropes  held  by  footmen,  like  banner- 
string  boys  in  a parade — forms  the  most  conspicuous  object  in  the 
procession.  Succession  to  the  throne  is  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
sovereign,  who  may  nominate  his  legitimate  son,  or  any  one  of  his 
natural  male  offspring,  or  his  cousin,  or  uncle,  as  he  pleases.  A 
son  of  the  queen  takes  precedence  over  other  sons,  but  the  male 
child  of  a concubine  becomes  king  when  the  queen  is  childless, 
which,  in  Corean  eyes,  is  virtually  the  case  when  she  has  daugh- 
ters only.  Since  the  founding  of  the  present  dynasty  in  1392, 
there  have  been  twenty-nine  successors  to  the  founder,  among 
whom  we  find  nephews,  cousins,  or  younger  sons,  in  several 
instances.  F our  were  kun,  princes,  or  king’s  son  only,  and  not 
successors  in  the  royal  line.  They  are  not  styled  wang,  or 
kings,  but  only  kun,  or  princes,  in  the  official  light.  One  of 
these  four  kun,  degraded  from  the  throne,  was  banished  after 
eleven  years,  and  another  was  served  in  like  manner  after 
fourteen  years,  reign.  The  heir  to  the  throne  holds  the  rank 
of  unng  (Japanese  0),  king,  while  the  younger  sons  are  kun, 
princes.  From  1392  to  1882,  the  average  reign  of  the  twenty 
sovereigns  of  Corea  who  received  investiture  is  very  nearly  six- 
teen and  a half  years. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 


POLITICAL  PARTIES. 

During  the  past  three  centuries  the  nobles  have  been  steadily 
gaining  political  power,  or  rather  we  might  say  have  been  regain- 
ing their  ancient  prestige  at  court.  They  have  compelled  the 
royal  princes  to  take  the  position  of  absolute  political  neutrality, 
and  the  policy  of  the  central  government  is  dictated  exclusively 
by  them.  Those  who  hold  no  office  are  often  the  most  powerful 
in  influence  -with  their  own  party. 

The  origin  of  the  political  parties,  which  have  played  such  an 
influential  part  in  the  history  of  modem  Corea,  is  referred  to  about 
the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America.  During  the  reign  of  Sien- 
chong  (1469-1494),  the  eleventh  sovereign  of  the  house  of  Ni,  a 
dispute  broke  out  between  two  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  nobles. 
The  court  had  bestowed  upon  one  of  them  a high  dignity,  to  which 
his  rival  laid  equal  claim.  As  usual  in  feudalism  everywhere,  the 
families,  relatives,  retainers,  and  even  servants,  of  either  leader 
took  part  in  the  quarrel.  The  king  prudently  kept  himself  neutral 
between  the  contending  factions,  which  soon  formed  themselves 
into  organized  parties  under  the  names  of  “Eastern  ” and  “West- 
ern.” Later  on,  from  a cause  equally  trivial  to  an  alien  eye,  two 
other  parties  formed  themselves  under  the  names  “ Southern  ” 
and  “ Northern.”  Soon  the  Easterners  joined  themselves  to  the 
Southerners,  and  the  Northerners,  who  were  very  numerous,  split 
into  two  divisions,  called  the  Great  North  and  the  Little  North. 
In  one  of  those  unsuccessful  palace  intrigues,  called  conspiracies, 
the  Great  North  party  was  mixed  up  with  the  plot,  and  most  of  its 
members  were  condemned  to  death.  The  survivors  hastened  to 
range  themselves  under  the  banner  of  the  Little  North.  The 
next  reaction  which  arranged  the  parties  on  new  lines,  occurred 
during  the  reign  of  Suk-chong  (1676-1720),  and  well  illustrates 
that  fanaticism  of  pedantry  to  which  the  literary  classes  in  time 
of  peace  formerly  devoted  their  energies.  The  father  of  a young 


POLITICAL  PARTIES. 


225 


noble  named  Yun,  who  belonged  to  the  Western  party,  having 
died,  the  young  man  composed  an  epitaph.  His  tutor,  an  influen- 
tial man  of  letters,  not  liking  the  production  of  his  pupil,  pro- 
posed another.  Unable  to  agree  upon  the  proper  text,  a lively  con- 
troversy arose,  and  out  of  a literary  acorn  sprang  up  a mighty  oak 
of  politics.  The  Western  party  split  into  the  Sho-ron,  and  No-ron, 
in  which  were  found  the  adherents  of  the  pupil  and  master.  A 
free  translation  of  the  correlative  terms  sho  and  no,  would  be 
“ Old  Corea  ” and  “ Young  Corea,”  or  Conservative  and  Progres- 
sive, or  radical.  There  were  now  four  political  parties. 

The  Shi-seik,  or  “the  four  parties,”  are  still  in  existence,  and 
receive  illustration  better  from  French  than  from  British  politics. 
Every  noble  in  the  realm  is  attached  to  one  or  the  other  of  the 
four  parties,  though  “ trimmers  ” are  not  unknown.  These  Tuhil- 
poki,  or  “right  and  left  men,”  are  ever  on  the  alert  for  the  main 
chance,  and  on  the  turn  of  the  political  vane  promptly  desert  to 
the  winning  side. 

However  trivial  the  causes  which  led  to  their  formation,  as 
Western  eyes  see,  the  objects  kept  in  view  by  the  partisans  are 
much  the  same  as  those  of  parties  in  European  countries  and  in 
the  United  States.  Nominally  the  prime  purpose  of  each  faction 
is  to  advance  the  interests  of  the  country.  Actual  and  very  power- 
ful motives  have  reference  to  the  spoils  of  office.  Each  party  en- 
deavors to  gain  for  its  adherents  as  many  of  the  high  appointments 
and  dignities  as  possible.  Their  rallying-point  is  around  the  heirs 
apparent,  or  possible,  to  the  throne.  When  a strong  and  healthy 
king  holds  the  reins  of  power,  political  activity  may  be  cool. 
When  the  sovereign  dies  and  the  succession  is  uncertain,  when  a 
queen  or  royal  concubine  is  to  be  chosen,  when  high  ministers  of 
state  die  or  resign,  the  Corean  political  furnace  is  at  full  blast. 
When  king  Suk-chong  was  reigning  in  1720,  having  no  son  to 
succeed  him,  the  four  parties  coalesced  into  two,  the  Opposition 
and  the  Court  or  royal  party.  The  former  supported  in  this  case 
one  who  proved  the  successful  candidate,  a brother  of  the  king ; 
the  latter  party  urged  the  claims  of  an  expected  heir  to  the  reign- 
ing king,  which,  however,  was  not  bom,  as  the  king  died  childless. 
To  secure  the  throne  to  their  nominee,  the  brother  of  the  childless 
king,  the  opposition  secretly  despatched  a courier  to  Peking  to 
obtain  the  imperial  investiture.  The  other  party  sent  assassins  to 
waylay  or  overtake  the  courier,  who  was  murdered  before  he  had 
crossed  the  frontier. 

15 


226 


COREA. 


Yeng-chong,  the  nominee  of  the  Opposition,  mounted  the 
throne  after  the  death  of  his  brother,  and  reigned  from  1724  to 
1776.  He  was  an  able  ruler,  and  signalized  his  reign  *by  abolish- 
ing many  of  the  legal  tortures  until  then  practised,  especially  the 
branding  of  criminals.  Yet  personally  he  was  cruel  and  unscrupu- 
lous. Public  rumor  credited  him  with  having  found  a road  to 
power  by  means  of  a double  crime.  By  the  use  of  various  drugs 
he  made  it  impossible  for  his  brother  to  have  an  heir,  after  which 
he  poisoned  him. 

Stung  by  these  reports,  he  began,  as  soon  as  he  was  made  sov- 
ereign, to  send  to  the  block  numbers  of  the  opposite  party  whom 
he  knew  to  be  his  enemies.  Some  years  after,  his  eldest  son  hav- 
ing died,  he  nominated  his  second  son,  Sato,  to  be  his  heir,  and 
associated  him  with  himself  in  the  government  of  the  kingdom. 
This  young  and  accomplished  prince  endeavored  to  make  his 
father  forget  his  bitter  hatred  against  the  Si-pai  party,  to  pro- 
claim general  amnesty,  and  to  follow  out  a frank  policy  of  recon- 
ciliation. The  king,  irritated  by  his  son’s  reproaches,  and  hounded 
on  by  his  partisans,  resolved  to  put  the  prince  out  of  the  way.  By 
the  royal  command  a huge  chest  of  wood  was  made,  into  which 
the  young  prince  was  ordered  to  sleep  while  living.  The  ponder- 
ous lid  was  put  on  during  one  of  his  slumbers  and  sealed  with 
the  royal  seal.  They  then  covered  this  sarcophagus  with  leaves 
and  boughs,  so  that  in  a short  time  the  young  prince  was  smoth- 
ered. This  horrible  crime  served  only  to  exasperate  the  party  of 
the  prince,  and  they  demanded  that  his  name  should  be  enrolled 
in  the  list  of  sovereigns.  Their  opponents  refused,  and  this  ques- 
tion is  still  a burning  one.  The  king’s  defenders,  to  this  day  de- 
cline to  rehabilitate  the  character  of  the  smothered  prince.  The 
others  demand  that  historic  justice  be  done.  Though  other  ques- 
tions have  since  arisen,  of  more  immediate  moment,  this  particu- 
lar moot  point  makes  its  distinct  hue  in  the  opposing  colors  of 
Corean  politics.  This,  however,  does  not  take  on  the  features  of 
an  hereditary  feud,  for  oftentimes  in  the  same  family,  father  and 
son,  or  brothers  may  hold  varying  views  on  this  historical  dispute, 
nor  does  it  affect  marriage  between  holders  of  diverse  views.  The 
Corean  Romeo  and  Juliet  may  woo  and  wed  without  let  or  dan- 
ger. In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  Piek-pai  are  radical  and 
fiery,  the  Si-pai  are  conservative  and  conciliatory. 

Cheng-chong,  who  ruled  from  1776  to  1800,  a wise,  moderate, 
and  prudent  prince,  and  a friend  of  learning,  favored  the  men  of 


POLITICAL  PARTIES. 


227 


merit  among  the  Southern  Si-pai,  and  is  also  noted  for  having 
revised  the  code  of  laws. 

Among  the  more  radical  of  the  partisans,  the  object  in  view  is 
not  only  to  gain  for  their  adherents  the  public  offices,  but  also  to 
smite  their  rivals  hip  and  thigh,  and  prevent  their  getting  appoint- 
ments. Hence  the  continual  quarrels  and  the  plots,  which  often 
result  in  the  death  of  one  or  other  of  the  leaders.  Assassination 
and  murderous  attacks  are  among  the  means  employed,  while 
to  supplant  their  enemies  the  king  is  besought  to  order  them  to 
death  or  exile.  Concessions  are  made  by  the  dominant  party  to 
the  other  only  to  avoid  violent  outbreaks,  and  to  keep  the  peace. 
With  such  a rich  soil  for  feuds,  it  is  not  wonderful  that  Corea  is 
cursed  with  elements  of  permanent  disturbance  like  those  in 
mediaeval  Scotland  or  Italy.  As  each  of  the  noble  families  have 
many  retainers,  and  as  the  feuds  are  hereditary,  the  passions  of 
human  nature  have  full  sway.  All  manner  of  envy  and  malice, 
with  all  uncharitableness  flourish,  as  in  a thicket  of  interlacing 
thorns.  The  Southern  and  No-ron  parties  have  always  been  the 
most  numerous,  powerful,  and  obstinate.  Between  them  mar- 
riages do  not  take  place,  and  the  noble  who  in  an  intrigue  with 
one  of  his  enemies  loses  caste,  his  honors,  or  his  life,  hands  down 
to  his  son  or  his  nearest  relative  his  demand  for  vengeance.  Often 
this  sacred  duty  is  associated  with  an  exterior  and  risible  pledge. 
He  may  give  to  his  son,  for  instance,  a coat  which  he  is  never  to 
take  off  until  revenge  is  had.  The  kinsman,  thus  clad  with  ven- 
geance as  with  a garment,  must  wear  it,  it  may  be  until  he  dies, 
and  then  put  it  upon  his  child  with  the  same  vow.  It  is  not  rare 
to  see  noblemen  clad  in  rags  and  tatters  during  two  or  three  gen- 
erations. Night  and  day  these  clothes  call  aloud  to  the  wearer, 
reminding  him  of  the  debt  of  blood  which  he  must  pay  to  appease 
the  spirits  of  his  ancestors. 

In  Corea,  not  to  avenge  one’s  father  is  to  be  disowned,  to 
prove  that  one  is  illegitimate  and  has  no  right  to  bear  the  family 
name,  it  is  to  violate,  in  its  fundamental  point,  the  national  reli- 
gion, which  is  the  worship  of  ancestors.  If  the  father  has  been 
put  to  death  under  the  forms  of  law,  it  behooves  that  his  enemy 
or  his  enemy’s  son  should  die  the  same  death.  If  the  father  has 
been  exiled,  his  enemy’s  exile  must  be  secured.  If  the  parent  has 
been  assassinated,  in  like  manner  must  his  enemy  fall.  In  these 
cases,  public  sentiment  applauds  the  avenger,  as  fulfilling  the  holy 
dictates  of  piety  and  religion. 


228 


COREA. 


The  pretext  of  accusation  most  often  employed  by  the  rival 
factions  is  that  of  conspiracy  against  the  life  of  the  king.  Peti- 
tions and  false  evidence  are  multiplied  and  bribery  of  the  court 
ministers  is  attempted.  If,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  first  petition- 
ers are  thrown  in  jail,  beaten,  or  condemned  to  mulct  or  exile, 
the  partisans  assess  the  fine  among  themselves  and  pay  it,  or 
manage  by  new  methods,  by  the  favor  or  venality  of  the  court 
ministers,  or  the  weakness  of  the  king,  at  last  to  compass  their  ends, 
when  those  of  the  vanquished  party  are  ousted  from  office,  while 
the  victors  use  and  abuse  their  positions  to  enrich  themselves  and 
ruin  their  enemies,  until  they  in  their  turn  are  supplanted. 

It  is  no  wonder  that  a Corean  liberal  visiting  in  Tokio,  in 
1882,  declared  to  a Japanese  officer  his  conviction  that  Corea’s 
dfficulties  in  the  wray  of  national  progress  were  greater  than  those 
of  which  Japan  had  rid  herself,  mighty  as  these  had  been.  By 
the  revolutions  of  1868,  and  later,  the  ripened  fruits  of  a century 
of  agitation  and  the  presence  of  foreigners,  Japan  had  purged 
from  her  body  politic  feudalism  and  caste,  emancipating  herself 
at  once  from  the  thrall  of  the  priest  and  the  soldier  ; but  Corea, 
with  her  feudalism,  her  court  intrigues,  her  Confucian  bigotry, 
and  the  effete  products  of  ages  of  seclusion  and  superstition  has 
even  a more  hopeless  task  to  attempt.  The  bearing  of  these 
phases  of  home  politics  will  be  further  displayed  when  the  new 
disturbing  force  of  Christianity  enters  to  furnish  a lever  to  am- 
bition and  revenge,  as  well  as  to  affection  and  philanthropy. 

A native  caricature,  which  was  published  about  a generation 
ago,  gives  even  a foreigner  a fair  idea  of  the  relative  position  of 
each  part}'  at  that  epoch.  At  a table  gorgeously  furnished,  a No- 
ron  is  seated  at  his  ease,  disposing  of  the  bountiful  fare.  A Sho- 
ron  seated  beside  him,  yet  in  the  rear,  graciously  performs  the 
office  of  servant,  receiving  part  of  the  food  as  reward  for  his  at- 
tendance. The  Little  North,  seeing  that  the  viands  ai'e  not  for 
him,  is  also  seated,  but  with  a more  sedate  and  serious  visage. 
Last  of  all  the  Southern,  covered  with  rags,  keeps  far  in  the  rear, 
behind  the  No-ron,  who  does  not  notice  him,  while  he,  in  vexation, 
grinds  his  teeth  and  shakes  his  fist  like  a man  who  means  to  take 
burning  vengeance.  Such  was  the  political  situation  before  1850, 
as  some  native  wit  pictured  it  for  the  amusement  of  the  Seoulians. 

It  requires  a ruler  of  real  ability  to  be  equal  to  the  pressure 
brought  upon  him  by  the  diverse  and  hostile  political  parties. 
Nominally  sovereign  of  the  country,  he  is  held  in  check  by  pow- 


POLITICAL  PARTIES. 


229 


erful  nobles  intrenched  in  privileges  hoary  with  age,  and  backed 
by  all  the  reactionary  influences  of  feudalism.  The  nobles  are  the 
powerful  middle  term  in  the  problem  of  Corean  politics,  who  con- 
trol both  king  and  commons.  The  nobles  have  the  preponderance 
of  the  government  patronage,  and  fill  the  official  positions  with 
their  liegemen  to  an  extent  far  beyond  what  the  theory  of  the 
law,  as  illustrated  in  the  literary  examinations,  allows  them.  A 
native  caricature  thus  depicts  the  situation.  Cho-sen  is  repre- 
sented as  a human  being,  of  whom  the  king  is  the  head,  the 
nobles  the  body,  and  the  people  the  legs  and  feet.  The  breast 
and  belly  are  full,  while  both  head  and  lower  limbs  are  gaunt  and 
shrunken.  The  nobles  not  only  drain  the  life-blood  of  the  peo- 
ple by  their  rapacity,  but  they  curtail  the  royal  prerogative.  The 
nation  is  suffering  from  a congestion,  verging  upon  a dropsical 
condition  of  over-officialism. 

The  disease  of  Corea’s  near  neighbor,  old  Japan,  was  like- 
wise a surplus  of  government  and  an  excess  of  official  patronage, 
but  the  body  politic  was  purged  by  revolution.  The  obstructions 
between  the  throne  and  the  people  were  cleared  away  by  the  re- 
moval of  the  sho-gunate  and  the  feudal  system.  Before  the 
advent  of  foreigners,  national  unity  was  not  the  absolute  necessity 
which  it  became  the  instant  that  aliens  fixed  their  dwelling  on  the 
soil.  Now,  the  empire  of  the  mikado  rejoices  in  true  political 
unity,  and  has  subjects  in  a strong  and  not  over-meddlesome  gov- 
ernment. The  people  are  being  educated  in  the  rudiments  of 
mutual  obligations — their  rights  as  well  as  their  duties.  The 
mikado  himself  took  the  oath  of  1868,  and  his  own  hand  shaped 
the  august  decree  of  1881,  which  will  keep  his  throne  unshaken, 
not  because  it  was  won  by  the  bows  and  arrows  of  his  divine  an- 
cestors, but  because  it  will  rest  broad-based  upon  the  peoples’ 
will.  So  in  Cho-sen  the  work  of  the  future  for  intelligent  patriots 
is  the  closer  union  of  king  and  people,  the  curtailment  of  the 
power  of  the  nobles,  and  the  excision  cf  feudalism.  Already,  to  ac- 
complish this  end,  there  are  Coreans  who  are  ready  to  die.  During 
the  last  decade,  the  pressure  from  Japan,  the  jealousy  of  China, 
the  danger  from  Russia,  the  necessity,  at  first  shrunk  from  and 
then  yielded  to,  of  making  treaties  with  foreign  nations,  has  altered 
the  motives  and  objects  of  Corean  politics.  Old  questions  have 
fallen  out  of  sight,  and  two  great  parties,  Progressionists  and  Ob- 
structionists, or  Radical  and  Conservative,  have  formed  for  the  solu- 
tion of  the  problems  thrust  upon  them  by  the  nineteenth  century. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS  OP  GOVERNMENT. 


Next  in  authority  to  the  king  are  the  three  chong  or  high  min- 
isters. The  chief  of  these  (Chen-kun)  is  the  greatest  dignitary  in 
the  kingdom,  and  in  time  of  the  minority,  inability,  or  imbecility 
of  the  king,  wields  royal  authority  in  fact  if  not  in  name.  Another 
term  applied  to  him  when  the  king  is  unable  to  govern,  is  “ Foun- 
dation-stone Minister,”  upon  whom  the  king  leans  and  the  state 
x'ests  as  a house  upon  its  foundation-stone.  The  title  of  Tai-wen- 
kun,  which  suggests  that  of  the  “Tycoon”  of  Japan,  seems  to 
have  been  a special  one  intended  for  the  emergency.  It  was  given 
to  the  Regent  who  is  the  father  of  the  present  King,  and  who 
ruled  with  nearly  absolute  power  from  1863  to  1874,  when  the 
king  reached  his  majority.  In  the  troubles  in  Seoul  in  July,  1882, 
his  title,  written  in  Japanese  as  Tai-in  kun,  became  familiar  to 
western  newspapers. 

After  the  king,  and  the  three  prime  ministers,  come  the  six 
ministries  or  boards  of  government,  the  heads  of  which  rank 
next  to  the  three  chong  or  ministers  forming  the  Supreme  Council. 
In  the  six  departments,  the  heads  are  called  pan-cho,  and  these  are 
assisted  by  two  other  associates,  the  cham-pan,  or  substitutes,  and 
the  cham-e,  or  counsellor.  These  four  grades  and  twenty-one 
dignitaries  constitute  the  royal  council  of  dai-jin  (great  ministers), 
though  the  actual  authority  is  in  the  supreme  council  of  the  three 
chong.  The  six  boards,  or  departments  of  the  government,  are : 
1,  Office  and  Public  Employ ; 2,  Finance  ; 3,  Ceremonies ; 4,  War ; 
5,  Justice ; 6,  Public  Works.  The  heads  of  these  tribunals  make 
a daily  report  of  all  affairs  within  their  province,  but  refer  all 
matters  of  importance  to  the  Supreme  Council.  There  are  also 
three  chamberlains,  each  having  his  assistants,  who  record  every 
day  the  acts  and  words  of  the  king.  A daily  government  gazette, 
called  the  Cho-po,  is  issued  for  information  on  official  matters. 
The  general  cast  and  method  of  procedure  in  the  court  and  gov- 
ernment is  copied  after  the  great  model  in  Peking. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS  OF  GOVERNMENT.  231 


Each  of  the  eight  provinces  is  under  the  direction  of  a kam-sa, 
or  governor.  The  cities  are  divided  into  six  classes  (yin,  mu,fu, 
lei,  ling,  and  hilu),  and  are  governed  by  officers  of  corresponding 
rank.  The  towns  are  given  in  charge  of  the  petty  magistrates, 
there  being  twelve  ranks  or  dignities  in  the  official  class.  In 
theory  any  male  Corean  able  to  pass  the  government  examinations 
is  eligible  to  office,  but  the  greater  number  of  the  best  positions 
are  secured  by  nobles  and  their  friends. 

From  the  sovereign  to  the  beggar,  the  gate,  both  figura- 
tively and  actually,  is  very  prominent  in  the  public  economy  and 
in  family  relationships.  A great  deal  of  etiquette  is  visible  in  the 
gates.  At  the  entrance  to  the  royal  palace  are,  or  were  formerly, 
two  huge  effigies,  in  wood,  of  horses,  painted  red.  Only  high 
officials  can  pass  these  mute  guardians.  All  persons  riding  past 
the  palace  must  dismount  and  walk.  To  the  houses  of  men  of 
rank  there  are  usually  two,  sometimes  three,  gates.  The  magis- 
trate himself  enters  by  the  largest,  his  parents  and  nearer  friends 
by  the  eastern,  and  servants  by  the  west  or  smallest.  "When  a 
visitor  of  equal  grade  calls  upon  an  officer  or  noble,  the  host  must 
come  all  the  way  to  the  great  or  outer  gate  to  receive  him,  and  do 
likewise  on  dismissing  him.  If  he  be  of  one  degree  lower  rank, 
the  host  comes  only  to  the  outside  of  the  middle  gate.  If  of  third 
or  fourth  rank,  the  caller  is  accompanied  only  to  the  space  inside 
the  middle  gate.  The  man  of  fifth  and  sixth  rank  finds  that  eti- 
quette has  so  tapered  off  that  the  lord  of  the  mansion  walks  only 
to  the  piazza.  In  front  of  a magistrate’s  office,  at  the  gateway,  are 
ranged  the  symbols  of  authority,  such  as  spears  and  tridents. 
The  gates  are  daily  opened  amid  the  loud  cries  of  the  underlings, 
and  their  opening  and  closing  with  a vocal  or  instrumental 
blast  is  a national  custom,  illustrated  as  well  at  the  city  as  at  the 
office.  The  porters  who  close  them  at  sunset  and  open  them  at 
dawn  execute  a salvo  on  their  trumpets,  often  lasting  a quarter 
of  an  hour.  This  acoustic  devastation,  so  distressing  to  foreign 
ears,  is  considered  good  music  to  the  native  tympanum. 

In  sitting,  the  same  iron  tongue  upon  the  buckle  of  custom 
holds  each  man  to  his  right  hole  in  the  social  strap.  People  of 
equal  rank  sit  so  that  the  guest  faces  to  the  east  and  the  host  to 
the  west.  In  ordinary  easy  style,  the  visitor’s  nose  is  to  the  south, 
as  he  sits  eastward  of  his  host.  A commoner  faces  north.  In 
social  entertainments,  after  the  yup,  or  bows  with  the  head 
and  hands  bent  together,  have  been  made,  wine  is  sipped  or 


232 


COREA. 


drunk  three  or  five  times,  and  then  follows  what  the  Coreans  cal] 
music. 

The  sumptuary  laws  of  the  kingdom  are  peculiar,  at  many  points 
amusing  to  occidentals.  To  commit  pem-ram  is  to  violate  these 
curious  regulations.  What  may  be  worn,  or  sat  upon,  is  solemnly 
dictated  by  law.  Nobles  sit  on  the  kan-kio,  or  better  kind  of 
chairs.  Below  the  third  rank,  officers  rest  upon  a bench  made  of 
ropes.  Chairs,  however,  are  not  common  articles  of  use,  nor  in- 
tended to  be  such.  At  entertainments  for  the  aged,  in  time  of 
rich  harvests,  local  feasts,  archery  tournaments,  and  on  public  occa- 
sions, these  luxuries  are  oftener  used.  In  short,  the  chair  seems 
to  be  an  article  of  ceremony,  rather  than  a constant  means  of  use 
or  comfort. 

Only  men  above  the  third  rank  are  allowed  to  put  on  silk. 
Petty  officials  must  wear  cotton.  Merchants  and  fanners  may  not 
imitate  official  robes,  but  don  tighter  or  more  economical  coats 
and  trowsers.  A common  term  for  officials  is  “blue  clouds,”  in 
reference  to  their  blue-tinted  garments.  To  their  assistants,  the 
people  apply  the  nickname,  not  sarcastic,  but  honorable,  of  “ crooked 
backs,”  because  they  always  bend  low  in  talking  to  their  employers. 

The  magistrates  lay  great  stress  on  the  trifles  of  etiquette,  and 
keep  up  an  immense  amount  of  fuss  and  pomp  to  sustain  their 
dignity,  in  order  to  awe  the  common  folks.  Whenever  they  move 
abroad,  their  servants  cry  out  “ cliii-wa,”  “ chii-wa,”  “ get  down 
off  your  horse,”  “get  down  off  your  horse,”  to  riders  in  sight. 
The  H-san,  or  large  banner  or  standard  in  the  form  of  an  um- 
brella, is  borne  at  the  head  of  the  line.  To  attempt  to  cross  one 
of  their  processions  is  to  be  seized  and  punished,  and  anyone  re- 
fusing to  dismount,  or  who  is  slow  about  slipping  off  his  horse,  is 
at  once  arrested,  to  be  beaten  or  mulcted.  When  permission  is 
given  to  kill  an  ox,  the  head,  hide,  and  feet  usually  become  the 
perquisites  of  the  magistrate  or  his  minions.  The  exuberant  vocab- 
ulary in  Corean,  for  the  various  taxes,  fines,  mulcts,  and  squeezes 
of  the  understrappers  of  the  magistrate,  in  gross  and  in  detail, 
chief  and  supplementary,  testify  to  the  rigors  and  expenses  of 
being  governed  in  Cho-sen. 

Overreaching  magistrates,  through  whose  injustice  the  people 
are  goaded  into  rebellion,  are  sometimes  punished.  It  seems  that 
one  of  the  penalties  in  ancient  times  was  that  the  culpable  official 
should  be  boiled  in  oil.  Now,  however,  the  condemned  man  is 
exiled,  and  only  rarely  put  to  death,  while  a commutation  of  justice 


ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS  OF  GOVERNMENT.  233 


— equivalent  to  being  burned  in  effigy — is  made  by  a pretended 
boiling  in  oil.  Good  and  upright  magistrates  are  often  remem- 
bered by  mok-pi,  or  inscribed  columns  of  wood,  erected  on  the 
public  road  by  the  grateful  people.  In  many  instances,  this  testi- 
monial takes  the  form  of  sculptured  stone.  A number  of  the  pub- 
lic highways  are  thus  adorned.  These,  with  the  tol-pi,  or  monu- 
mental bourne,  which  marks  distances  or  points  out  the  paths  to 
places  of  resort,  are  interesting  features  of  travel  in  the  peninusla, 
and  more  pleasant  to  the  horseman  than  the  posts  near  temples 
and  offices  on  which  one  may  read  “Dismount.”  At  the  funeral 
of  great  dignitaries  of  the  realm,  a life-sized  figui-e  of  a horse, 
made  of  bamboo,  dragged  before  the  coffin,  is  burned  along  with 
the  clothes  of  the  deceased,  and  the  ashes  laid  beside  his  remains. 

As  the  magistrates  are  literary  men,  their  official  residences 
often  receive  poetic  or  suggestive  names,  which,  in  most  cases,  re- 
flect the  natural  scenery  surrounding  them.  “Little  Flowery 
House,”  “Rising  Cloud,”  “Sun-greeting,”  “Sheet  of  Resplen- 
dent Water,”  “ Water-that-slides-as-straiglit-as-a-sword  Dwelling,” 
“ Gate  of  Lapis-lazuli,”  “ Mansion  near  the  Whirlpool,”  are  some 
of  these  names,  while,  into  the  composition  of  others,  the  Morn- 
ing-star, the  Heaven -touching,  the  Cave-spirit,  and  the  Changing- 
cloud  Mountain,  or  the  Falling-snow  Cataract  may  enter.  Passion- 
ately fond  of  nature,  the  Corean  gentleman  will  erect  a tablet  in 
praise  of  the  scenery  that  charms  his  eye.  One  such  reads,  “ The 
beauty  of  its  rivers,  and  of  its  mountains,  make  this  district  the 
first  in  the  country.” 

If,  as  the  French  say,  “ Paris  is  France,”  then  Seoul  is  Corea. 
An  apparently  disproportionate  interest  centres  in  the  capital,  if 
one  may  judge  from  the  vast  and  varied  vocabulary  relating  to 
Seoul,  its  people  and  things,  which  differentiate  all  else  outside  its 
wall.  Three  thousand  official  dignitaries  are  said  to  reside  in  the 
capital,  and  only  eight  hundred  in  all  the  other  cities  and  prov- 
inces. Seoul  is  “the  city,”  and  all  the  rest  of  the  peninsula  is  “the 
country.”  A provincial  having  cultivated  manners  is  called  “ a 
man  of  the  capital.”  “ Capital  and  province”  means  the  realm. 

The  rule  of  the  local  authorities  is  very  minute  in  all  its  rami- 
fications. The  system  of  making  every  five  houses  a social  unit 
is  universal.  When  a crime  is  committed,  it  is  easy  to  locate  the 
group  in  which  the  offender  dwells,  and  responsibility  is  fixed  at 
once.  Every  subject  of  the  sovereign  except  nobles  of  rank,  must 
possess  a passport  or  ticket  testifying  to  his  personality,  and  all 


234 


COREA. 


must  “ show  their  tickets”  on  demand.  For  the  people,  this  cer- 
tificate of  identity  is  a piece  of  branded  or  inscribed  wood,  for  the 
soldiers  of  horn,  for  the  literary  class  and  government  officials  of 
bone.  Often,  the  tablet  is  in  halves,  the  individual  having  one- 
half,  and  the  government  keeping  its  tally.  The  people  who  can- 
not read  or  write  have  their  labels  carefully  tied  to  their  clothing. 
When  called  upon  to  sign  important  documents,  or  bear  witness 
on  trial,  they  make  a blood-signature,  by  rudely  tracing  the  signs 
set  before  them  in  their  own  blood.  The  name,  residence  of  the 
holder,  and  the  number  of  the  group  of  houses  in  which  he  lives, 
are  branded  or  inscribed  on  the  ho-pai,  or  passport. 

The  actual  workings  of  Corean  justice  will  be  better  under- 
stood when  treating  of  Christianity — an  element  of  social  life 
which  gave  the  pagan  tribunals  plenty  of  work.  Civil  matters  are 
decided  by  the  ordinary  civil  magistrate,  who  is  judge  and  jury  at 
once  ; criminal  cases  are  tried  by  the  military  commandant.  Very 
important  cases  are  referred  to  the  governor  of  the  province.  The 
highest  court  of  appeal  is  in  the  capital.  Cases  of  treason  and  re- 
bellion, and  charges  against  high  dignitaries,  are  tried  in  the 
capital  before  a special  tribunal  instituted  by  the  king. 

The  two  classes  of  assistants  to  the  magistrate,  who  are  called 
respectively  hai-seiJc  and  a-clien,  act  as  constables  or  sheriffs, 
police  messengers,  and  jailers.  French  writers  term  them  “ pre- 
torians”  and  “satellites.”  These  men  have  practically  the  admin- 
istration of  justice,  and  the  details  and  spirit  of  local  authority  are 
in  their  power.  The  hai-seik,  or  constables,  form  a distinct  class 
in  the  community,  rarely  intermarrying  with  the  people,  and 
handing  down  their  offices,  implements,  and  arts  from  father  to 
son.  The  a-chen,  who  are  the  inferior  police,  jailers,  and  torturers, 
are  from  the  very  lowest  classes,  and  usually  of  brutal  life  and 
temper. 

The  vocabulary  of  torture  is  sufficiently  copious  to  stamp  Cho- 
sen as  still  a semi-civilized  nation.  The  inventory  of  the  court  and 
prison  comprises  iron  chains,  bamboos  for  beating  the  back,  a 
paddle-shaped  implement  for  inflicting  blows  upon  the  buttocks, 
switches  for  whipping  the  calves  till  the  flesh  is  ravelled,  ropes 
for  sawing  the  flesh  and  bodily  organs,  manacles,  stocks,  and 
boards  to  strike  against  the  knees  and  shin-bones.  Other  punish- 
ments are  suspension  by  the  arms,  tying  the  hands  in  front  of  the 
knees,  between  which  and  the  elbows  is  inserted  a stick,  while  the 
human  ball  is  rolled  about.  An  ancient  but  now  obsolete  mode 


ORGANIZATION  AND  METHOD.;  OP  GOVERNMENT.  235 


of  torture  was  to  tie  the  four  limbs  of  a man  to  the  horns  of  as 
many  oxen,  and  then  to  madden  the  beasts  by  fire,  so  that  they 
tore  the  victim  to  fragments.  The  punishment  of  beating  with 
paddles  often  leaves  scars  for  life,  and  causes  ulcers  not  easily 
healed.  One  hundred  strokes  cause  death  in  most  cases,  and 
many  die  under  forty  or  fifty  blows.  For  some  crimes  the  knees 
and  shin-bones  are  battered.  A woman  is  allowed  to  have  on  one 
garment,  which  is  wetted  to  make  it  cling  to  the  skin  and  in- 
crease the  pain.  The  chief  of  the  lictors,  or  public  spanker,  is 
called  siu-tio.  With  the  long,  flexible  handle  swung  over  his 
head,  he  plies  the  resounding  blows,  planting  them  on  the  bare 
skin  just  above  the  knee-joint,  the  victim  being  held  down  by  four- 
gaolers.  The  method  of  correction  is  quite  characteristic  of  pa- 
ternal government,  and  is  often  inflicted  upon  the  people  openly 
and  in  public,  at  the  whim  of  the  magistrate.  The  bastinado 
was  formerly,  like  hundreds  of  other  customs  common  to  both 
countries,  in  vogue  in  Japan.  As  in  many  other  instances,  this  has 
survived  in  the  less  civilized  nation. 

When  an  offender  in  the  military  or  literary  class  is  sentenced 
to  death,  decapitation  is  the  rather  honorable  method  employed. 
The  executioner  uses  either  a sort  of  native  iron  hatchet-sword  or 
cleaver,  or  one  of  the  imported  Japanese  steel-edged  blades, 
which  have  an  excellent  reputation  in  the  peninsula. 

Undoubtedly  the  severity  of  the  Corean  code  has  been  miti- 
gated since  Hamel’s  time.  According  to  his  observations,  husbands 
usually  killed  their  wives  who  had  committed  adultery.  A wife 
murdering  her  husband  was  buried  to  the  shoulders  in  the  earth 
at  the  road  side,  and  all  might  strike  or  mutilate  her  with  axe  or 
sword.  A serf  who  murdered  his  master  was  tortured,  and  a 
thief  might  be  trampled  to  death.  The  acme  of  cruelty  was  pro- 
duced, as  in  old  Japan,  by  pouring  vinegar  down  the  criminal’s 
throat,  and  then  beating  him  till  he  burst.  The  criminal  code 
now  in  force  is,  in  the  main,  that  revised  and  published  by  the 
king  in  1785,  which  greatly  mitigated  the  one  formerly  used.  One 
disgraceful,  but  not  very  severe,  mode  of  correction  is  to  tie  a 
drum  to  the  back  of  the  offender  and  publicly  proclaim  his  trans- 
gression, while  the  drum  is  beaten  as  he  walks  through  the  streets. 
Amid  many  improvements  on  the  old  barbarous  system  of  aggra- 
vating the  misery  of  the  condemned,  there  still  survives  a dis- 
graceful form  of  capital  punishment,  in  which  the  cruelty  takes  on 
the  air  of  savage  refinement.  The  cho-reni-to-ta  appeal’s  only  in 


236 


COREA. 


extreme  cases.  The  criminal’s  face  is  smeared  •with  chalk,  his 
hands  are  tied  behind  him,  a gong  is  tied  on  his  back,  and  an 
arrow  is  thrust  through  either  ear.  The  executioner  makes  the 
victim  march  round  before  the  spectators,  while  he  strikes  the 
gong,  crying  out,  “ This  fellow  has  committed  [adultery,  murder, 
treason,  etc.].  Avoid  his  crime.”  The  French  missionaries  exe- 
cuted near  Seoul  were  all  put  to  death  in  this  barbarous  manner. 

Officials  often  receive  furloughs  to  return  home  and  visit  their 
parents,  for  filial  piety  is  the  supreme  virtue  in  Chinese  Asia. 
The  richest  rewards  on  earth  and  brightest  heaven  hereafter  await 
the  filial  child.  Curses  and  disgrace  in  this  life  and  the  hottest 
hell  in  the  world  hereafter  are  the  penalties  of  the  disobedient  or 
neglectful  child.  The  man  who  strikes  his  father  is  beheaded. 
The  parricide  is  burned  to  death.  Not  to  mourn  long  and  faith- 
fully, by  retiring  from  office  for  months,  is  an  incredible  iniquity. 

Coreans,  like  Japanese,  argue  that,  if  the  law  punishes  crime, 
it  ought  also  to  reward  virtue.  Hence  the  system  which  prevails 
in  the  mikado’s  empire  and  in  Cho-sen  of  publicly  awarding  prizes 
to  signal  exemplars  of  filial  piety.  These  in  Japan  may  be  in  the 
form  of  money,  silver  cups,  rolls  of  silk,  or  gewgaws.  In  Corea, 
they  are  shown  in  monumental  columns,  or  dedicatory  temples, 
or  by  public  honors  and  promotion  to  office.  Less  often  are  the 
rewarded  instances  of  devotion  to  the  mother  than  to  the  father. 

Official  life  has  its  sunshine  and  shadows  in  this  land  as  else- 
where, but  perhaps  one  of  the  hardest  tasks  before  the  Corean 
ruling  classes  of  this  and  the  next  generation  is  the  duty  of  dili- 
gently eating  their  words.  Accustomed  for  centuries  to  deciy 
and  belittle  the  foreigner  from  Christendom,  they  must  now,  as 
the  people  discern  the  superiority  of  westerners,  “ rise  to  explain  ” 
in  a manner  highly  embarrassing.  In  intellect,  government,  science, 
social  customs,  manual  skill,  refinement,  and  possession  of  the  arts 
and  comforts  of  life,  the  foreigner  will  soon  be  discovered  to  be 
superior.  At  the  same  time  the  intelligent  native  will  behold 
with  how  little  wisdom,  and  how  much  needless  cruelty,  Cho-sen 
is  governed.  The  Japanese  official  wTorld  has  passed  through  such 
an  experience.  If  we  may  argue  from  a common  ancestry  and 
hereditary  race  traits,  we  may  forecast  the  probability  that  to 
Corea,  as  to  Japan,  may  come  the  same  marvellous  revolution  in 
ideas  and  customs. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 


FEUDALISM,  SERFDOM,  AND  SOCIETY. 

It  is  remarked  by  Palladius  that  the  Fuyu  race,  the  ancestors 
of  the  modern  Coreans,  was  the  first  to  emerge  from  the  desert 
under  feudal  forms  of  organization.  The  various  migrations  of 
new  nations  rising  out  of  northern  and  eastern  Asia  were  west- 
ward, and  were  held  together  under  monarchical  systems  of  govern- 
ment. The  Fuyu  tribes  who,  by  turning  their  face  to  the  rising, 
instead  of  the  setting  sun,  were  anomalous  in  the  direction  of 
their  migration,  were  unique  also  in  then  political  genius.  Those 
emigrants  who,  descending  from  the  same  ancestral  seats  in  Man- 
churia, and  through  the  peninsula,  crossed  toward  Nippon,  or 
Sunrise,  and  settled  Japan,  maintained  their  feudalism  until, 
through  ambitious  desire  to  rival  great  China,  they  borrowed  the 
centralized  system  of  court  and  monarchy  from  the  Tang  dynasty, 
in  the  seventh  century.  The  mikado,  by  means  of  boards  or 
ministries  like  the  Chinese,  ruled  his  subjects  until  the  twelfth 
century.  Then,  through  the  pride  and  ambition  of  the  military 
clans,  which  had  subdued  all  the  tribes  to  his  sway,  feudalism, 
which  had  spread  its  roots,  lifted  its  head.  By  rapid  growths, 
under  succeeding  military  regents,  it  grew  to  be  the  tree  over- 
spreading the  empire.  It  was  finally  uprooted  and  destroyed  only 
by  the  revolution  of  1868,  and  the  later  victories  of  united  Japan’s 
imperial  armies,  at  an  awful  sacrifice  of  life  and  treasure. 

That  branch  of  the  Fuyu  migration  which  remained  in  the 
Corean  peninsula  likewise  preserved  the  institution  of  feudalism 
which  had  been  inherited  from  their  ancestors.  In  their  early 
history,  lands  were  held  on  the  tenure  of  military  service,  and  in 
war  time,  or  on  the  accession  of  a new  dynasty,  rewards  were 
made  by  parcelling  out  the  soil  to  the  followers  of  the  victor. 
Provision  for  a constant  state  of  servitude  among  one  class  of  the 
political  body  was  made  by  the  custom  of  making  serfs  of  crimi- 
nals or  their  kindred.  A nucleus  of  slavery  being  once  formed 


238 


COREA. 


debt,  famine,  capture  in  war,  voluntary  surrender,  would  serve  to 
increase  those  whose  persons  and  labor  were  wholly  or  partly 
owned  by  another.  To  social  prosperity,  religion,  and  the  increase 
of  general  intelligence,  we  may  look  as  elements  for  the  ameliora- 
tion of  serfdom  and  the  elevation  of  certain  classes  of  bondsmen 
into  free  people.  The  forms  of  Corean  society,  to  this  day,  are 
derived  from  feudal  ranks  and  divisions,  and  the  powers,  status, 
divisions,  and  practical  politics  of  the  nobles  have  their  roots  in 
the  ancient  feudalism  which  existed  even  “ before  the  conquest.” 
Its  fruit  and  legacy  are  seen  in  the  serfdom  or  slavery  which  is 
Corea’s  “ domestic  ” or  “ peculiar  ” institution. 

Speaking  in  general  terms,  the  ladder  of  society  has  four  rungs, 
the  king,  nobles,  and  the  three  classes  of  society,  in  the  last  of 
which  are  “ the  seven  low  callings.”  In  detail,  the  grades  may  be 
counted  by  the  tens  and  scores.  In  the  lowest  grade  of  the  fourth 
class  are  “the  seven  vile  callings,”  viz.  : the  merchant,  boatman, 
jailor,  postal  or  mail  slave,  monk,  butcher,  and  sorcerer. 

The  “four  classes  of  society”  include  the  literary  men  or 
officials,  the  farmers,  the  artisans,  and  the  trader’s.  Among  the 
nobility  are  various  ranks,  indicated  by  titles,  high  offices  at  court, 
or  nearness  of  relationship  to  the  king.  He  is  “ neither  ox  nor 
horse  ” is  the  native  slang  for  one  who  is  neither  noble  nor  com- 
moner. The  nobles  are  usually  the  serf-proprietors  or  slave-hold- 
ers, many  of  them  having  in  their  households  large  numbers 
whom  they  have  inherited  along  with  their  ancestral  chattels. 
The  master  has  a right  to  sell  or  otherwise  dispose  of  the  children 
of  his  slaves  if  he  so  choose.  The  male  slave  is  called  chong-nom. 
A free  man  may  many  a female  slave,  in  which  case  he  is  termed 
a pi-pu.  The  male  children  by  this  man-iage  are  free,  but  the 
female  offspring  belong  to  the  master  of  the  mother,  and  may  be 
sold.  A liberated  slave  is  called  pal-sin,  and  he  speaks  of  his 
former  master  as  ku-siang.  The  native  vocabulary  for  the  slave 
in  his  various  relations  is  sufficiently  copious.  “ Fugitive  ” slaves, 
“ slave-huntei's,”  and  “slave-drivers,”  are  as  common  to  the  Co- 
rean ear,  as  to  the  American  in  the  long-ago  days  of  “before  the 
war.”  A pan-no  is  a bondsman  frying  to  escape,  and  to  attempt 
chiu-ro  is  to  hunt  the  fugitive  and  bring  him  back.  The  in-chang 
is  the  public  slave  of  the  village.  Yet  such  a thing  as  the  bonds- 
man’s servile  love  of  place,  rising  into  swollen  and  oppressive 
pride  that  looks  down  on  the  poor  freeman,  is  a common  thing, 
and  cruel  and  overbearing  treatment  of  the  peasantry  by  the  min- 


FEUDALISM,  SERFDOM,  AND  SOCIETY. 


239 


ions  of  a noble  is  too  frequently  witnessed  in  Corea.  “ Tek-pun- 
ai”  (“By  your  favor,”  equivalent  to  “Let  me  live,  I pray  you”) 
is  a cry,  more  than  once  heard  by  French  missionaries,  from  a 
man  beaten  by  the  swaggering  serfs  of  some  nobleman.  It  is 
not  exactly  the  feeling  of  the  sleek  and  well-bred  black  slave  of 
old-time  Virginia  for  “the  poor  white  trash,”  since  in  Corea 
slavery  has  no  color-line ; yet,  in  essentials  of  circumstance,  it  is 
the  same.  Such  a phase  of  character  is  more  likely  to  be  devel- 
oped among  the  serfs  of  the  old  barons  or  landed  proprietors  who 
have  longest  occupied  their  hereditary  possessions,  and  who  keep 
up  a petty  court  within  their  castles  or  semi-fortified  mansions. 

Slavery  or  serfdom  in  Corea  is  in  a continuous  state  of  decline, 
and  the  number  of  slaves  constantly  diminishing.  In  the  remote 
provinces  it  is  practically  at  an  end.  The  greater  number  of  serfs 
are  to  be  found  attached  to  the  estates  of  the  great  noble  families 
of  the  central  provinces.  The  slaves  are  those  who  are  born  in  a 
state  of  servitude,  those  who  sell  themselves  as  slaves,  or  those 
who  are  sold  to  be  such  by  their  parents  in  time  of  famine  or  for 
debt.  Infants  exposed  or  abandoned  that  are  picked  up  and 
educated  become  slaves,  but  their  offspring  are  bom  free.  The 
serfdom  is  really  very  mild.  Only  the  active  young  men  are  held 
to  field  labor,  the  young  women  being  kept  as  domestics.  When 
old  enough  to  marry,  the  males  are  let  free  by  an  annual  payment 
of  a sum  of  money  for  a term  of  years.  Often  the  slaves  marry, 
are  assigned  a house  apart,  and  bound  only  to  a fixed  amount  of 
labor.  Although  the  master  has  the  power  of  life  and  death  over 
his  slaves,  the  right  is  rarely  exercised  unjustly,  and  the  mission- 
aries report  that  there  were  few  cases  of  excessive  cruelty  prac- 
tised. An  unjust  master  could  be  cited  before  the  tribunals,  and 
the  case  inquired  into.  Often  the  actual  condition  of  the  serfs  is 
superior  to  that  of  the  poor  villagers,  and  instances  are  common 
in  which  the  poor,  to  escape  the  rapacity  and  cruelty  of  the  nobles, 
have  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  a master  known  to 
be  a kind  man,  and  thus  have  purchased  ease  and  comfort  at  the 
sacrifice  of  liberty. 

Outside  of  private  ownership  of  slaves,  there  is  a species  of 
government  slavery,  which  illustrates  the  persistency  of  one  feature 
of  ancient  Kokorai  perpetuated  through  twenty  centuries.  It  is  the 
law  that  in  case  of  the  condemnation  of  a great  criminal,  the  ban 
of  Ui-ro-ui-pi  shall  fall  upon  his  wife  and  children,  who  at  once 
become  the  slaves  of  the  judge.  These  unfortunates  do  not  have 


240 


COREA. 


tlie  privilege  of  honorably  serving  the  magistrate,  but  usually  pa*3 
their  existence  in  waiting  on  the  menials  in  the  various  depart- 
ments and  magistracies.  Only  a few  of  the  government  slaves 
are  such  by  birth,  most  of  them  having  become  so  through  judicial 
condemnation  in  criminal  cases ; but  this  latter  class  fare  far  worse' 
than  the  ordinary  slaves.  They  are  chiefly  females,  and  are  treated 
very  little  better  than  beasts.  They  are  at  the  mercy  not  only  of 
the  officers  but  even  of  their  satellites,  servants,  and  grooms,  or 
to  whomever  they  are  sold  for  an  hour.  Nothing  can  equal  the 
contempt  in  which  they  are  held,  and  for  an  honest  or  an  innocent 
woman,  such  a fate  is  worse  than  many  deaths.  In  the  earliest 
written  account  of  the  Kokorai  people,  the  ancestors  of  the  mod- 
ern Coreans,  we  find  this  same  feature  of  ancient  feudalism  by 
which  a class  of  serfs  may  be  continually  provided.  To  Christian 
eyes  it  is  a horrible  relic  of  barbarism. 

The  penal  settlements  on  the  sea-coast,  and  notably  Quelpart 
Island,  are  worked  by  colonies  of  these  male  government  slaves  or 
convicts.  The  females  are  not  usually  sent  away  from  the  place 
of  their  parents  or  their  own  crime. 

In  ancient  times  of  Kokorai  and  Korai  there  were  only  two 
classes  of  people,  the  nobles  and  their  free  retainers,  and  the 
serfs  or  slaves.  The  nobles  were  lords  of  cities  and  castles,  like 
the  daimins  of  Japan,  and  were  very  numerous.  The  whole  coun- 
try was  owned  by  them,  or  at  least  held  in  the  king’s  name  under 
tenure  of  military  service — a lien  which  length  of  time  only 
strengthened.  In  the  long  centuries  of  peace,  many  of  these  old 
families — weakly  descendants  of  vigorous  founders — have  died  out, 
and  the  land  reverting  to  the  sovereign,  or  possessed  by  the  peo- 
ple, is  now  owned  by  a more  numerous  and  complex  class,  while 
nearly  all  the  cities  and  towns  are  governed  by  officers  sent  out 
by  the  central  authority  at  Seoul.  The  ancient  class  of  serfs  has, 
by  industry  and  intelligence  and  accumulation  of  rights  vested 
in  their  special  occupations,  developed  into  the  various  middle 
classes.  The  nobles  are  now  in  a minority,  though  at  present 
their  power  is  on  the  increase,  and  their  ancestral  landholds  com- 
prise but  a small  portion  of  the  soil. 

As  in  mediaeval  Europe,  so  in  Corea,  where  feudalism,  which 
rests  on  personal  loyalty  to  a reigning  sovereign,  or  a particular 
royal  line,  prevails,  a more  or  less  complete  revolution  of  titles  and 
possessions  takes  place  upon  a change  of  dynasty.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  the  present  royal  house  in  1392,  the  old  Korai  nobility 


FEUDALISM,  SERFDOM,  AND  SOCIETY. 


241 


were  impoverished  and  the  partisans  of  the  founder  of  the  Ni,  and 
all  who  had  aided  him  to  the  throne,  became  at  once  the  nobility 
of  the  kingdom,  and  were  rewarded  by  gifts  of  land.  To  the 
victors  belonged  the  spoils.  The  honors,  riches,  and  the  exclu- 
sive right  to  fill  many  of  the  most  desirable  public  offices  were 
awarded  in  perpetuity  to  the  aristocracy.  The  mass  of  the  people 
were  placed  or  voluntarily  put  themselves  under  the  authority  of 
the  nobles.  The  agricultural  class  attached  to  the  soil  simply 
changed  masters  and  landlords,  while  the  cities  and  towns  people 
and  sea-coast  dwellers  became,  only  in  a nominal  sense,  the  ten- 
antry of  the  nobles.  Gradually,  however,  those  who  had  ability 
and  address  obtained  their  full  liberty,  so  that  they  were  in  no 
way  bound  to  pay  tithe  or  tax  to  the  nobles,  but  only  to  the  cen- 
tral government.  Under  peace,  with  wealth,  intelligence,  combi- 
nation, trade-unions,  and  guilds,  and  especially  by  means  of  the 
literary  examinations,  the  various  classes  of  the  people  emerged 
into  independent  existence,  leaving  but  a few  of  the  lowest  of  the 
population  in  the  condition  of  serfs  or  slaves.  Between  the  ac- 
counts of  Hamel  in  1653,  and  of  the  French  missionaries  in  the 
last  decade,  there  are  many  indications  of  progress.  Laborers, 
artisans,  merchants,  soldiers,  etc.,  now  have  a right  to  their  own 
labor  and  earnings,  and  the  general  division  of  the  common- 
wealth is  into  three  classes — nobles,  common  people,  and  serfs  or 
slaves. 

Speaking  generally,  the  peculiar  institution  of  Cho-sen  is  serf- 
dom rather  than  slavery,  and  is  the  inheritence  of  feudalism ; yet, 
as  Russia  has  had  her  Alexander,  America  her  Lincoln,  and  Japan 
her  Mutsuhito,  we  may  hope  to  see  some  great  liberator  yet  arise 
in  the  “Land  of  Morning  Calm.” 

Under  absolute  despotisms,  as  most  Asiatic  governments  are, 
it  is  a wonder  to  republicans  how  the  people  enjoy  any  liberty 
at  all.  If  they  have  any,  it  is  interesting  to  study  how  they  have 
attained  it,  and  how  they  hold  it.  Politically,  they  have  absolutely 
no  freedom.  They  know  nothing  of  government,  except  to  pay 
taxes  and  obey.  Their  political  influence  is  nothing.  In  Cho-sen, 
according  to  law,  any  person  of  the  common  people  may  compete 
at  the  public  examinations  for  civil  or  military  employment,  but, 
in  point  of  fact,  his  degree  is  often  worthless,  for  he  is  not  likely 
to  receive  office  by  it.  In  a country  where  might  and  wealth 
make  right,  and  human  beings  are  politically  naught,  being  but 
beasts  of  burden  or  ciphers  without  a unit,  how  do  the  people 
16 


242 


COREA. 


protect  themselves  and  gain  any  liberty  ? How  does  it  come  to 
pass  that  serfs  may  win  their  way  to  social  freedom  ? 

It  is  by  union  and  organization.  The  spirit  of  association,  so 
natural  and  necessary,  is  spread  among  the  Coreans  of  all  classes, 
from  the  highest  families  to  the  meanest  slaves.  All  those  who 
have  any  kind  of  work  or  interest  in  common  form  guilds,  cor- 
porations, or  societies,  which  have  a common  fund,  contributed  to 
by  all  for  aid  in  time  of  need.  Very  powerful  trade-unions  exist 
among  the  mechanics  and  laborers,  such  as  porters,  ostlers,  and 
pack-horse  leaders,  hat-weavers,  coffin-makers,  carpenters,  and 
masons.  These  societies  enable  each  class  to  possess  a monopoly 
of  their  trade,  which  even  a noble  vainly  tries  to  break.  Some- 
times, they  hold  this  right  by  writ  purchased  or  obtained  from 
government,  though  usually  it  is  by  prescription.  Most  of  the 
guilds  are  taxed  by  the  government  for  their  monopoly  enjoyed. 
They  have  their  chief  or  head  man,  who  possesses  almost  despotic 
power,  and  even,  in  some  guilds,  of  life  and  death.  New  mem- 
bers or  apprentices  may  be  admitted  by  paying  their  rate  and 
submitting  to  the  rules  of  the  guild.  In  the  higher  grades  of  so- 
ciety we  see  the  same  spirit  of  association.  The  temple  attend- 
ants, the  servants  of  the  nobles,  the  gardeners,  messengers,  and 
domestics  of  the  palace,  the  supernumeraries  and  government 
employes,  all  have  their  “rings,”  which  an  outsider  may  not 
break.  Even  among  the  noble  families  the  same  idea  exists  in 
due  form.  The  villages  form  each  a little  republic,  and  possess 
among  themselves  a common  fund  to  which  every  family  con- 
tributes. Out  of  this  money,  hid  in  the  earth  or  lent  out  on 
interest,  are  paid  the  public  taxes,  expenses  of  marriage  and 
burial,  and  whatever  else,  by  custom  and  local  opinion,  is  held  to 
be  a public  matter.  Foreigners,  accustomed  to  the  free  competi- 
tion of  English-speaking  countries,  will  find  in  Cho-sen,  as  they 
found  in  Japan,  and  even  more  so,  the  existence  of  this  spirit  of 
protective  association  and  monopoly  illustrated  in  a hundred 
forms  which  are  in  turn  amusing,  vexatious,  or  atrocious.  A man 
who  in  injustice,  or  for  mere  caprice,  or  in  a fit  of  temper,  dis- 
charges his  ostler,  house-servant,  or  carpenter,  will  find  that  he 
cannot  obtain  another  good  one  very  easily,  even  at  higher  wages, 
or,  if  so,  that  his  new  one  is  soon  frightened  off  the  premises.  To 
get  along  comfortably  in  Chinese  Asia,  one  must,  willy-nilly,  pay 
respect  to  the  visible  or  invisible  spirit  of  trade-unionism  that 
pervades  all  society  in  those  old  countries. 


FEUDALISM,  SERFDOM,  AND  SOCIETY. 


243 


One  of  the  most  powerful  and  best  organized  guilds  is  that  of 
the  porters.  The  interior  commerce  of  the  country  being  almost 
entirely  on  the  backs  of  men  and  pack-horses,  these  people  have 
the  monopoly  of  it.  They  number  about  ten  thousand,  and  are 
divided  by  provinces  and  districts  under  the  orders  of  chiefs, 
sub-chiefs,  censors,  inspectors,  etc.  A large  number  of  these  por- 
ters are  women,  often  poor  widows,  or  those  unable  to  marry. 
Many  of  them  are  of  muscular  frame,  and  their  life  in  the  open 
air  tends  to  develop  robust  forms,  with  the  strength  of  men. 
They  speak  a conventional  language,  easily  understood  among 
themselves,  and  are  very  profuse  in  their  salutations  to  each  other. 
They  have  very  severe  rules  for  the  government  of  their  guild, 
and  crimes  among  them  are  punished  with  death,  at  the  order  of 
their  chief.  They  are  so  powerful  that  they  pretend  that  even  the 
government  dare  not  interfere  with  them.  They  are  outside  the 
power  of  the  local  magistrate,  just  as  a German  University  student 
is  responsible  to  the  Faculty,  but  not  to  the  police.  They  are 
honest  and  faithful  in  their  business,  delivering  packages  with 
certainty  to  the  most  remote  places  in  the  kingdom.  They  are 
rather  independent  of  the  people,  and  even  bully  the  officers. 
When  they  have  received  an  insult  or  injustice,  or  too  low  wages, 
they  “strike”  in  a body  and  retire  from  the  district.  This  puts 
a stop  to  all  travel  and  business,  until  these  grievances  are  settled 
or  submission  to  their  own  terms  is  made. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  country  at  large  is  so  lacking  in  the 
shops  and  stores  so  common  in  other  countries,  and  that,  instead, 
fairs  on  set  days  are  so  numerous  in  the  towns  and  villages,  the 
guild  of  pedlers  and  hucksters  is  very  large  and  influential.  The 
class  includes  probably  200,000  able-bodied  adult  persons,  who  in 
the  various  provinces  move  freely  among  the  people,  and  are  thus 
useful  to  the  government  as  spies,  detectives,  messengers,  and,  in 
time  of  need,  soldiers.  It  was  from  this  class  that  the  Corean  bat- 
talions which  figured  prominently  in  the  affair  of  December  4-6, 
1887,  were  recruited. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 


SOCIAL  LIFE.— WOMAN  AND  THE  FAMILY. 


According  to  the  opinions  of  the  French  missionaries,  who  were 
familiar  with  the  social  life  of  the  people,  a Corean  woman  has  no 
moral  existence.  She  is  an  instrument  of  pleasure  or  of  labor ; but 
never  man’s  companion  or  equal.  She  has  no  name.  In  child- 
hood she  receives  indeed  a surname  by  which  she  is  known  in  the 
family,  and  by  near  friends,  but  at  the  age  of  puberty,  none  but 
her  father  and  mother  employ  this  appellative.  To  all  others  she 
is  “ the  sister  ” of  such  a one,  or  “ the  daughter  ” of  so-and-so. 
.After  her  marriage  her  name  is  buried.  She  is  absolutely  name- 
less. Her  own  parents  allude  to  her  by  employing  the  name  of 
the  district  or  ward  in  which  she  has  married.  Her  parents-in- 
law  speak  of  her  by  the  name  of  the  place  in  which  she  lived 
before  marriage,  as  women  rarely  marry  in  the  same  village  with 
their  husbands.  When  she  bears  children,  she  is  “ the  mother  ” 
of  so-and-so.  When  a woman  appears  for  trial  before  a magis- 
trate, in  order  to  save  time,  and  trouble,  she  receives  a special 
name  for  the  time  being. The  women  below  the  middle  class 
work  very  hard.  Farm  labor  is  done  chiefly  by  them.  Manure 
is  applied  by  the  women,  rarely  by  the  men.  The  women  carry, 
lunch  to  the  laborers  in  the  field,  eating  what  is  left  for  their 
share.  In  going  to  market,  the  women  carry  the  heavier  load/^In 
their  toilet,  the  women  use  rouge,  white  powders,  and  hair  oil. 
They  shave  the  eyebrows  to  a narrow  line — that  is,  to  a perfectly 
clean  arch,  with  nothing  straggling.  They  have  luxuriant  hair, 
and,  in  addition,  use  immense  switches  to  fill  out  large  coiffures. 

In  the  higher  classes  of  society,  etiquette  demands  that  the 
children  of  the  two  sexes  be  separated  after  the  age  of  eight  or 
ten  years.  After  that  time  the  boys  dwell  entirely  in  the  men’s 
apartments,  to  study  and  even  to  eat  and  drink.  The  girls  remain 
secluded  in  the  women’s  quarters.  The  boys  are  taught  that  it  is 
a shameful  thing  even  to  set  foot  in  the  female  part  of  the  house 


SOCIAL  LIFE.— WOMAN  AND  THE  FAMILY. 


245 


The  girls  are  told  that  it  is  disgraceful  even  to  be  seen  by  males, 
so  that  gradually  they  seek  to  hide  themselves  whenever  any  of 
the  male  sex  appear.  These  customs,  continued  from  childhood 
to  old  age,  result  in  destroying  the  family  life.  A Corean  of  good 
taste  only  occasionally  holds  conversation  with  his  wife,  whom  he 
regards  as  being  far  beneath  him.  He  rarely  consults  her  on 
anything  serious,  and  though  living  under  the  same  roof,  one  may 
say  that  husband  and  wife  are  widely  separated.  The  female 
apartments  among  the  higher  classes  resemble,  in  most  respects, 
the  zenanas  of  India.  The  men  chat,  smoke,  and  enjoy  them- 
selves in  the  outer  rooms,  and  the  women  receive  their  parents 
and  friends  in  the  interior  apartments.  The  same  custom,  based 
upon  the  same  prejudice,  hinders  the  common  people  in  their  mo- 
ments of  leisure  from  remaining  in  their  own  houses.  The  men 
seek  the  society  of  their  male  neighbors,  and  the  women,  on  their 
part,  unite  together  for  local  gossip.  In  the  higher  classes,  when  a 
young  woman  has  arrived  at  marriageable  age,  none  even  of  her 
own  relatives,  except  those  nearest  of  kin,  is  allowed  to  see  or 
speak  to  her.  Those  who  are  excepted  from  this  rule  must  ad- 
dress her  with  the  most  ceremonious  reserve.  After  their  mar- 
riage, the  women  are  inaccessible.  They  are  nearly  always  con- 
fined to  their  apartments,  nor  can  they  even  look  out  in  the  streets 
without  permission  of  their  lords.  So  strict  is  this  rule  that 
fathers  have  on  occasions  killed  their  daughters,  husbands  then- 
wives,  and  wives  have  committed  suicide  when  strangers  have 
touched  them  even  with  their  fingers.  The  common  romances 
or  novels  of  the  country  expatiate  on  the  merits  of  many  a Corean 
Lucretia.  In  some  cases,  however,  this  exaggerated  modesty  pro- 
duces the  very  results  it  is  intended  to  avoid.  If  a bold  villain 
or  too  eager  paramour  should  succeed  in  penetrating  secretly 
the  apartments  of  a noble  lady,  she  dare  not  utter  a cry,  nor 
oppose  the  least  resistance  which  might  attract  attention ; for  then, 
whether  guilty  or  not,  she  would  be  dishonored  forever  by  the 
simple  fact  that  a man  had  entered  her  chamber.  Every  Corean 
husband  is  a Caesar  in  this  respect.  If,  however,  the  affair  remains 
a secret,  her  reputation  is  saved. 

There  is,  however,  another  side.  Though  counting  for  noth- 
ing in  society,  and  nearly  so  in  their  family,  they  are  surrounded 
by  a certain  sort  of  exterior  respect.  They  are  always  addressed 
in  the  formulas  of  honorific  language.  The  men  always  step  aside 
in  the  street  to  allow  a woman  to  pass,  even  though  she  be  of  the 


246 


COREA. 


poorer  classes.  The  apartments  of  females  are  inviolable  even  to 
the  minions  of  the  law.  A noble  who  takes  refuge  in  his  wife’s 
room  may  not  be  seized.  Only  in  cases  of  rebellion  is  he  dragged 
forth,  for  in  that  case  his  family  are  reckoned  as  accomplices  in 
his  guilt.  In  other  crimes  the  accused  must  in  some  way  be  en- 
ticed outside,  where  he  may  be  legally  arrested.  When  a pedler 
visits  the  house  to  show  his  wares,  he  waits  until  the  doors  of  the 
women’s  apartments  are  shut.  This  done,  his  goods  are  examined 
in  the  outer  apartments,  which  are  open  to  all.  When  a man 
wishes  to  mend,  or  go  up  on  his  roof,  he  first  notifies  his  neigh- 
bors, in  order  that  they  may  shut  their  doors  and  windows,  lest 
he  risk  the  horrible  suspicion  of  peeping  at  the  women.  As  the 
Coreans  do  not  see  a “man  in  the  moon,”  but  only  a rabbit 
pounding  drugs,  or  a lady  banished  there  for  a certain  fault, 
according  as  they  are  most  familiar  with  Sanskrit  or  the  Chinese 
story,  the  females  are  not  afraid  of  this  luminary,  nor  are  the  men 
jealous  of  her,  the  moon  being  female  in  their  ideas  of  gender. 

Marriage  in  Cho-sen  is  a thing  with  which  a gaman  has  little 
or  nothing  to  do.  The  father  of  the  young  man  communicates, 
either  by  call  or  letter,  with  the  father  of  the  girl  whom  he  wishes 
his  son  to  marry.  This  is  often  done  without  consulting  the  tastes 
or' character  "of  either,  and  usually  through  a middle-man  or  go- 
between.  The  fathers  settle  the  time  of  the  wedding  after  due 
discussion  of  the  contract,  f A favorable  day  is  appointed  by  the 
astrologers,  and  the  arrangements  are  perfected.  Under  this  aspect 
marriage  seems  an  affair  of  small  importance,  but  in  reality  it  is 
marriage  only  that  gives  one  any  civil  rank  or  influence  in  so- 
ciety. Every  unmanned  person  is  treated  as  a child.  He  may 
commit  all  sorts  of  foolishness  without  being  held  to  account. 
His  capers  are  not  noticed,  for  he  is  not  supposed  to  think  or  act 
seriously.  Even  the  unmarried  young  men  of  twenty-five  or  thirty 
years  of  age  can  take  no  part  in  social  reunions,  or  speak  on  affairs 


of  importance,  but  must  hold  their  tongues,  be  seen  but  not  hearc 
Marriage  is  emancipation.  Even  if  mated  at  twelve  or  thirteen 
years  of  age,  the  married  are  adults.  The  bride  takes  her  place 
among  the  matrons,  and  the  young  man  has  a right  to  speak 
among  the  men  and  to  wear  a hat.  The  badge  of  single  or  of 
married  life  is  the  hair.  Before  marriage,  the  youth,  who  goes 
bareheaded,  wears  a simple  tress,  hanging  down  his  back.  The 
nuptial  tie  is,  in  reality,  a knot  of  hair,  for  in  wedlock  the  hair  is 
bound  up  on  the  top  of  the  head  and  is  cultivated  on  all  parts  of 


SOCIAL  LIFE.— WOMAN  AND  THE  FAMILY. 


247 


the  scalp.  According  to  old  traditions,  men  ought  never  to  clip 
a single  hair ; but  in  the  capital  the  young  gallants,  in  order  to 
add  to  their  personal  attractions — with  a dash  of  fashionable  defi- 
ance— trim  their  locks  so  that  their  coiffure  will  not  increase  in 
size  more  than  a hen’s  egg.  The  women,  on  the  contrary,  not 
only  preserve  all  their  own  hair,  but  procure  false  switches  and 
braids  to  swell  their  coiffures  to  fashionable  bulk.  They  make  up 
two  large  tresses,  which  are  rolled  to  the  back  and  top  of  the 
head,  and  secured  by  a long  pin  of  silver  or  copper.  The  common 
people  roll  their  plaits  around  their  heads,  like  a turban,  and 
shave  the  front  of  the  scalp.  Young  persons  who  insist  on  re- 
maining single,  or  bachelors  arrived  at  a certain  or  uncertain  age, 
and  who  have  not  yet  found  a wife,  secretly  cut  off  their  hair,  or 
get  it  done  by  fraud,  in  order  to  pass  for  married  folks  and  avoid 
being  treated  as  children.  Such  a custom,  however,  is  a gross 
violation  of  morals  and  etiquette.  (See  illustration,  page  161.) 

On  the  evening  before  the  wedding,  the  young  lady  who  is  to 
be  married  invites  one  of  her  friends  to  change  her  virginal  coif- 
fure to  that  of  a married  woman. 

The  bridegroom -to-be  also  invites  one  of  his  acquaintance  to 
“do  up”  his  hair  in  manly  style.  The  persons  appointed  to  per- 
form this  sendee  are  chosen  with  great  care,  and  as  changing  the 
hair  marks  the  turning-point  in  life,  the  hair-dresser  of  this 
occasion  is  called  the  “ hand  of  honor,”  and  answers  to  the  brides- 
maid and  groomsman  of  other  countries. 

On  the  marriage-day,  in  the  house  of  the  groom,  a platform  is 
set  up  and  richly  adorned  with  decorative  woven  stuffs.  Parents, 
friends,  and  acquaintances  assemble  in  a crowd.  The  couple  to 
be  married — who  may  never  have  seen  or  spoken  to  each  other — 
are  brought  in  and  take  their  places  on  the  platform,  face  to  face. 
There  they  remain  for  a few  minutes.  They  salute  each  other 
with  profound  obeisance,  but  utter  not  a word.  This  constitutes 
the  ceremony  of  marriage.  Each  then  retires,  on  either  side  ; the 
bride  to  the  female,  the  groom  to  the  male  apartments,  where 
feasting  and  amusement,  after  fashions  in  vogue  in  Cho-sen,  take 
place.  The  expense  of  a wTedding  is  considerable,  and  the  bride- 
groom must  be  unstinting  in  his  hospitality.  Any  failure  in  this 
particular  may  subject  him  to  unpleasant  practical  jokes. 

On  her  wedding-day,  the  young  bride  must  preserve  absolute 
silence,  both  on  the  marriage  platform  and  in  the  nuptial  cham- 
ber. Etiquette  requires  this  at  least  among  the  nobility.  Though 


248 


COREA. 


overwhelmed  with  questions  and  compliments,  silence  is  her  duty. 
She  must  rest  mute  and  impassive  as  a statue.  She  seats  herseli 
in  a comer  clothed  in  all  the  robes  she  can  bear  upon  her  person. 
Her  husband  may  disrobe  her  if  he  wishes,  but  she  must  take  no 
part  or  hinder  him.  If  she  utters  a word  or  makes  a gesture,  she 
is  made  the  butt  of  the  jokes  and  gossip  of  her  husband’s  house 
or  neighborhood.  The  female  servants  of  the  house  place  them- 
selves in  a peeping  position  to  listen  or  look  through  the  win- 
dows, and  are  sure  to  publish  what  they  see  and  hear  amiss.  Or 
this  may  be  done  to  discover  whether  the  husband  is  pleased  with 
his  wife,  or  how  he  behaves  to  her,  as  is  the  case  in  Japan.  A bit 
of  gossip — evidently  a stock  story — is  the  following  from  Dallet : 

A newly  married  Corean  groom  spent  a whole  day  among  his 
male  friends,  in  order  to  catch  some  words  from  his  wife  at  their 
first  interview,  after  their  hours  of  separation.  His  spouse  was 
informed  of  this,  and  perhaps  resolved  to  be  obstinate.  Her  hus- 
band, having  vainly  tried  to  make  her  speak,  at  last  told  her  that 
on  consulting  the  astrologers  they  had  said  that  his  wife  was 
mute  from  birth.  He  now  saw  that  such  was  the  case,  and  was 
resolved  not  to  keep  for  his  wife  a dumb  woman.  Now  in  a Co- 
rean wedding,  it  is  quite  possible  that  such  an  event  may  take 
place.  One  of  the  contracting  parties  may  be  deaf,  mute,  blind, 
or  impotent.  It  matters  not.  The  marriage  exists.  But  the 
wife,  stung  by  her  husband’s  words,  broke  out  in  an  angry  voice, 
“Alas,  the  horoscope  drawn  for  my  partner  is  still  more  true. 
The  diviner  announced  that  I should  marry  the  son  of  a rat.” 
This,  to  a Corean,  is  a great  insult,  as  it  attaints  father  and  son, 
and  hence  the  husband  and  his  father.  The  shouts  of  laughter 
from  the  eavesdropping  female  servants  added  to  the  discomfiture 
of  the  young  husband,  who  had  gained  his  point  of  making  his 
bride  use  her  tongue  at  a heavy  expense,  for  long  did  his  friends 
jeer  at  him  for  his  bravado,  and  chaff  him  at  catching  a Tartar. 

From  the  language,  and  from  Japanese  sources,  we  obtain 
some  side-lights  on  the  nuptial  ceremony  and  married  life.  In 
Corean  phrase  hmi-sang  (the  wedding  and  the  funeral)  are  the 
two  great  events  of  life.  Many  are  the  terms  relating  to  mar- 
riage, and  the  synonyms  for  conjugal  union.  “To  take  the  hat,” 
“to  clip  the  hair,”  “ to  don  the  tuft,”  “ to  sit  on  the  mat,”  are  all 
in  use  among  the  gentlemen  of  the  peninsula  to  denote  the  act 
or  state  of  marriage.  The  hat  and  the  hair  play  an  important 
part  in  the  transition  from  single  to  double  blessedness.  All  who 


SOCIAL  LIFE— WOMAN  AND  THE  FAMILY. 


249 


wear  their  locks  ta-rai,  or  in  a tress  behind,  are  youths  and 
maidens.  Those  with  the  tuft  or  top-knot  are  married.  At  his 
wedding  and  during  the  first  year,  the  bridegroom  wears  a cap, 
made  of  a yellow  herb,  which  is  supposed  to  grow  only  near 
Sunto.  Other  honeymoon  caps  are  melon-shaped,  and  made  of 
sable  skin.  Ater  the  chung-mai,  or  middle-man,  has  arranged  the 
match,  and  the  day  is  appointed  for  the  han-sa,  or  wedding,  the 
bride  chooses  two  or  three  maiden  friends  as  “bridesmaids.”  If 
rich,  the  bride  goes  to  her  future  husband’s  house  in  a palanquin ; 
if  poor,  she  rides  on  horseback.  Even  the  humblest  maid  uses  a 
sort  of  cap  or  veil,  with  ornaments  on  the  breast,  back,  and  at  the 
girdle.  When  she  cannot  buy,  she  borrows.  The  prominent  sym- 
bolic figure  at  the  wedding  is  a goose,  which,  in  Corean  eyes,  is 
the  emblem  of  conjugal  fidelity.  Sometimes  this  mok-an  is  of 
gilded  wood,  sometimes  it  is  made  out  of  a fish  for  eating,  again 
it  is  a live  bird  brought  in  a cloth  with  the  head  visible.  If  in 
the  house,  as  is  usual,  the  couple  ascend  the  piled  mats  or  dais 
and  the  reciprocal  prostrations,  or  acts  of  mutual  consent,  form 
the  sacramental  part  of  the  ceremony,  and  constitute  marriage. 
The  bride  bows  four  times  to  her  father-in-law  and  twice  to  the 
groom.  The  groom  then  bows  four  times  to  the  bride.  Other 
symbolic  emblems  are  the  fantastic  shapes  of  straw  ( otsuka ) pre- 
sented to  bride  and  groom  alike.  Dried  pheasant  is  also  brought 
in  and  cut.  A gourd-bottle  of  rice-wine,  decorated  or  tied  with 
red  and  blue  thread,  is  handed  by  the  bride  to  the  groom.  The 
bridesmaids  standing  beside  the  couple  pour  the  liquid  and  pass 
for  exchange  the  one  little  “ cup  of  the  wine  of  mutual  joy,”  sev- 
eral times  filled  and  emptied. 

Then  begins  the  wedding-feast,  when  the  guests  drink  and 
make  merry.  The  important  document  certifying  the  fact  of  wed- 
lock is  called  the  hon-se-chi,  and  is  signed  by  both  parties.  When 
the  woman  is  unable  to  write,  she  makes  “ her  mark  ” ( siu-pon ) 
by  spreading  out  her  hand  and  tracing  with  a pencil  the  exact 
profile  of  palm,  wrist,  and  fingers.  Sometimes  the  groom,  in  ad- 
dition to  his  four  prostrations,  which  are  significant  of  fidelity  to 
the  bride,  gives  to  his  father-in-law  a written  oath  of  constancy  to 
his  daughter.  Faithfulness  is,  however,  a typical  feminine,  rather 
than  masculine,  virtue  in  the  hermit  nation.  The  pong-kang,  a 
kind  of  wild  canary  bird,  is  held  up  to  the  wife  as  her  model  of 
conjugal  fidelity.  Another  large  bird,  somewhat  exceeding  a duck 
in  size,  and  called  the  ching-fciong,  is  said  never  to  remate  after 


250 


COREA. 


the  death  of  its  consort.  Corean  widows  are  expected  to  imitate 
this  virtuous  fowl.  In  some  places  may  be  seen  the  vermilion 
arch  or  monumental  gateway  erected  to  some  widow  of  faithful 
memory  who  wedded  but  once.  Married  women  wear  two  rings 
on  the  ring  finger.  Sixty  years,  or  a cycle,  completes  the  ideal 
length  of  marital  life,  and  “a  golden  wedding”  is  then  celebrated. 

Among  the  most  peculiar  of  women’s  rights  in  Cho-sen  is  the 
curious  custom  forbidding  any  males  in  Seoul  from  being  out 
after  eight  o’clock  in  the  evening.  When  this  Corean  curfew 
sounds,  all  men  must  hie  in-doors,  while  women  are  free  to  ramble 
abroad  until  one  a.m.  To  transgress  this  law  of  pem-ya  brings 
severe  penalty  upon  the  offender.  In-doors,  the  violation  of  the 
privacy  of  the  woman’s  quarters  is  punishable  by  exile  or  severe 
flagellation. 

The  following  story,  from  Dallet,  further  illustrates  some 
phases  of  their  marriage  customs,  and  shows  that,  while  polygamy 
is  not  allowed,  concubinage  is  a recognized  institution : 

A noble  wished  to  many  his  own  daughter  and  that  of  his 
deceased  brother  to  eligible  young  men.  Both  maidens  were  of 
the  same  age.  He  wished  to  wed  both  well,  but  especially  liis 
own  child.  With  this  idea  in  view  he  had  already  refused  some 
good  offers.  Finally  he  made  a proposal  to  a family  noted  alike  for 
pedigree  and  riches.  After  hesitating  some  time  which  of  the 
maidens  he  should  dispose  of  first,  he  finally  decided  upon  his  own 
child.  Without  having  seen  his  future  son-in-law,  he  pledged  his 
word  and  agreed  upon  the  night.  Three  days  before  the  ceremony 
he  learned  from  the  diviners  that  the  young  man  chosen  was  silly, 
exceedingly  ugly,  and  very  ignorant.  What  should  he  do  ? He 
could  not  retreat.  He  had  given  his  word,  and  in  such  a case  the 
law  is  inflexible.  In  his  despair  he  resolved  upon  a plan  to  render 
abortive  what  he  could  not  avert.  On  the  day  of  the  marriage, 
he  appeared  in  the  women’s  apartments,  and  gave  orders  in  the 
most  imperative  manner  that  his  niece,  and  not  his  daughter, 
should  don  the  marriage  coiffure  and  the  wedding-dress,  and 
mount  the  nuptial  platform.  His  stupefied  daughter  could  not 
but  acquiesce.  The  two  cousins  being  of  about  the  same  height, 
the  substitution  was  easy,  and  the  ceremony  proceeded  according 
to  the  usual  forms.  The  new  bridegroom  passed  the  afternoon  in 
the  men’s  apartments,  where  he  met  his  supposed  father-in-law. 
What  was  the  amazement  of  the  old  noble  to  find  that  far  from 
being  stupid  and  ugly,  as  depicted  by  the  diviners,  the  young  man 


SOCIAL  LIFE.— WOMAN  AND  THE  FAMILY. 


251 


was  good-looking,  well-formed,  intelligent,  highly  educated,  and 
amiable  in  manners.  Bitterly  regretting  the  loss  of  so  accom- 
plished a son-in-law,  he  determined  to  repair  the  evil.  He  secretly 
ordered  that,  instead  of  his  niece,  his  daughter  should  be  intro- 
duced as  the  bride.  He  knew  well  that  the  young  man  would 
suspect  nothing,  for  during  the  salutations  the  brides  are  always 
so  muffled  up  with  dresses  and  loaded  with  ornaments  that  it  is 
impossible  to  distinguish  their  countenances. 

All  happened  as  the  old  man  desired.  During  the  two  or 
three  days  which  he  passed  with  the  new  family,  he  congratulated 
himself  upon  obtaining  so  excellent  a son-in-law.  The  latter,  on 
his  part,  showed  himself  more  and  more  charming,  and  so  gained 
the  heart  of  his  supposed  father-in-law  that,  in  a burst  of  confi- 
dence, the  latter  revealed  to  him  all  that  had  happened.  He  told 
of  the  diviners’  reports  concerning  him,  and  the  successive  substi- 
tutions of  niece  for  daughter  and  daughter  for  niece. 

The  young  man  was  at  first  speechless,  then,  recovering  his 
composure,  said : “ All  right,  and  that  is  a very  smart  trick  on 
your  part.  But  it  is  clear  that  both  the  two  young  persons  belong 
to  me,  and  I claim  them.  Your  niece  is  my  lawful  wife,  since  she 
has  made  to  me  the  legal  salute,  and  your  daughter — introduced 
by  yourself  into  my  marriage-chamber — has  become  of  right  and 
law  my  concubine.”  The  crafty  old  man,  caught  in  his  own  net, 
had  nothing  to  answer.  The  two  young  women  were  conducted 
to  the  house  of  the  new  husband  and  master,  and  the  old  noble 
was  jeered  at  both  for  his  lack  of  address  and  his  bad  faith. 

It  is  the  reciprocal  salutation  before  witnesses  on  the  wedding- 
dais  that  constitutes  legitimate  marriage.  From  that  moment  a 
husband  may  claim  the  woman  as  his  wife.  If  he  repudiates  or 
divorces  her,  he  may  not  marry  another  woman  while  his  former 
wife  is  living,  but  he  is  free  to  take  as  many  concubines  as  he  can 
support.  It  is  sufficient  that  a man  is  able  to  prove  that  he  has 
had  intimate  relations  with  a maiden  or  a widow ; she  then  be- 
comes his  legal  property.  No  person,  not  even  her  parents,  can 
claim  her  if  the  man  persists  in  keeping  her.  If  she  escape,  he 
may  use  force  to  bring  her  back  to  his  house. JTConjugal  fidelity — 
obligatory  on  the  woman — is  not  required  of  the  husband,  and  a 
wife  is  little  more  than  a slave  of  superior  rank.  Among  the 
nobles,  the  young  bridegroom  spends  three  or  four  days  with  his 
bride,  and  then  absents  himself  from  her  for  a considerable  time,  to 
prove  that  he  does  not  esteem  her  too  highly.  Etiquette  dooms 


252 


COREA. 


her  to  a species  of  widowhood,  while  he  spends  his  hours  of  relax- 
ation in  the  society  of  his  concubines.  To  act  otherwise  would  be 
considered  in  very  bad  taste,  and  highly  unfashionable.  Instances 
are  known  of  nobles  who,  having  dropped  a few  tears  at  the  death 
of  their  wives,  have  had  to  absent  themselves  from  the  saloons  of 
their  companions  to  avoid  the  torrent  of  ribaldry  and  jeers  at  such 
weakness.  Such  eccentricity  of  conduct  makes  a man  the  butt  of 
long-continued  railery. 

XX  Habituated  from  infancy  to  such  a yoke,  and  regarding  them- 
selves as  of  an  inferior  race,  most  women  submit  to  their  lot  with 
exemplary  resignation.  Having  no  idea  of  progress,  or  of  an  in- 
fraction of  established  usage,  they  bear  all  things.  They  become 
devoted  and  obedient  wives,  jealous  of  the  reputation  and  well- 
being of  then-  husbands.  They  even  submit  calmly  to  the  tyranny 
and  unreason  of  their  mothers-in-law^K  Often,  however,  there  is 
genuine  rebellion  in  the  household.  Adding  to  her  other  faults  of 
character,  violence  and  insubordination,  a Corean  wife  quarrels 
with  her  mother-in-law,  makes  life  to  her  husband  a burden,  and  in- 
cessantly provokes  scenes  of  choler  and  scandal.  Among  the  lower 
classes,  in  such  cases,  a few  strokes  of  a stick  or  blows  of  the  fist 
bring  the  wife  to  terms.  In  the  higher  classes  it  is  not  proper 
to  strike  a woman,  and  the  husband  has  no  other  course  than  that 
of  divorce.  If  it  is  not  easy  for  him  to  many  again,  he  submits. 
If  his  wife,  not  content  with  tormenting  him,  is  unfaithful  to  him, 
or,  deserting  his  bed,  goes  back  to  her  owli  house,  he  can  lead  her 
before  the  magistrate,  who  after  administering  a beating  with  the 
paddles,  gives  her  as  a concubine  to  one  of  his  underlings. 

Women  of  tact  and  energy  make  themselves  respected  and  con- 
quer their  legitimate  position,  as  the  following  example  shows.  It 
is  taken  by  Dallet  from  a Corean  treatise  on  morals  for  the  youth 
of  both  sexes : 

Toward  the  end  of  the  last  century  a noble  of  the  capital,  of 
high  rank,  lost  his  wife,  by  whom  he  had  had  several  children. 
His  advanced  age  rendered  a second  marriage  difficult.  Never- 
theless, the  middle-men  (or  marriage-brokers  employed  in  such 
cases)  decided  that  a match  could  be  made  with  the  daughter  of  a 
poor  noble  in  the  province  of  Kiung-sang.  On  the  appointed  day 
he  appeared  at  the  mansion  of  his  future  father-in-law,  and  the 
couple  mounted  the  stage  to  make  the  salute  according  to  custom. 
Our  grandee,  casting  his  eyes  upon  his  new  wife,  stopped  for  the 
moment  thunderstruck.  She  was  very  fat,  ugly,  hump-backed, 


SOCIAL  LIFE  — WOMAN  AND  THE  FAMILY. 


253 


and  appeared  to  be  as  slightly  favored  with  gifts  of  mind  as  of 
body. 

But  he  could  not  withdraw,  and  he  played  his  part  firmly.  He 
resolved  neither  to  take  her  to  his  house  nor  to  have  anything  to 
do  with  her.  The  two  or  three  days  which  it  was  proper  to  pass 
in  his  father-in-law’s  house  being  spent,  he  departed  for  the  capital 
and  paid  no  further  attention  to  his  new  relatives. 

The  deserted  wife,  who  was  a person  of  a great  deal  of  intelli- 
gence, resigned  herself  to  her  isolation  and  remained  in  her 
father’s  house,  keeping  herself  informed,  from  time  to  time,  of 
what  happened  to  her  husband.  She  learned,  after  two  or  three 
years,  that  he  had  become  minister  of  the  second  rank,  and  that 
he  had  succeeded  in  marrying  his  two  sons  very  honorably.  Some 
years  later,  she  heard  that  he  proposed  to  celebrate,  with  all 
proper  pomp,  the  festivities  of  his  sixtieth  birthday.  Immediately, 
without  hesitation  and  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  and  opposition 
of  her  parents,  she  took  the  road  to  the  capital.  There  hiring  a 
palanquin,  she  was  taken  to  the  house  of  the  minister  and  an- 
nounced herself  as  his  wife.  She  alighted,  entered  the  vestibule, 
and  presented  herself  with  an  air  of  assurance  and  a glance  of 
tranquillity  at  the  women  of  the  united  families.  Seating  herself  at 
the  place  of  honor,  she  ordered  some  fire  brought,  and  with  the 
greatest  calmness  lighted  her  pipe  before  the  amazed  domestics. 
The  news  was  carried  to  the  outer  apartments  of  the  gentlemen, 
but,  according  to  etiquette,  no  one  appeared  surprised. 

Finally  the  lady  called  together  the  household  slaves  and  said 
to  them,  in  a severe  tone,  “What  house  is  this?  I am  your  mis- 
tress, and  yet  no  one  comes  to  receive  me.  Where  have  you  been 
brought  up  ? I ought  to  punish  you  severely,  but  I shall  pardon 
you  this  time.”  They  hastened  to  conduct  her  into  the  midst  of 
all  the  female  guests.  “Where  are  my  sons-in-law?”  she  de- 
manded. “ How  is  it  that  they  do  not  come  to  salute  me?  They 
forget  that  I am  without  any  doubt,  by  my  marriage,  the  mother 
of  their  wives,  and  that  I have  a right,  on  their  part,  to  all  the 
honors  due  to  their  own  mothers.” 

Forthwith  the  two  daugliters-in-law  presented  themselves  with 
a shamed  air,  and  made  their  excuses  as  well  as  they  were  able. 
She  rebuked  them  gently,  and  exhorted  them  to  show  themselves 
more  scrupulous  in  the  accomplishment  of  their  duties.  She  then 
gave  different  orders  in  her  quality  as  mistress  of  the  house. 

Some  hours  after,  seeing  that  neither  of  the  men  appeared,  she 


254 


COREA. 


called  a slave  to  her,  and  said  to  liim  : “My  two  sons  are  surely 
not  absent  on  such  a day  as  this.  See  if  they  are  in  the  men’s 
apartments,  and  bid  them  come  here.”  The  sons  presented  them- 
selves before  her,  much  embarrassed,  and  blundered  out  some  ex- 
cuses. “How?”  said  she,  “you  have  heard  of  my  arrival  for 
several  hours  and  have  not  come  to  salute  me?  With  such  bad 
bringing  up,  and  an  equal  ignorance  of  principles  of  action,  how 
wall  you  make  your  way  in  the  world?  I have  pardoned  my 
slaves  and  my  daughters-in-law  for  their  want  of  politeness,  but 
for  you  who  are  men  I cannot  let  this  fault  pass  unpunished.” 
With  this  she  called  a slave  and  bade  him  give  them  some  strokes 
on  the  legs  with  a rod.  Then  she  added,  “For  your  father,  the 
minister,  I am  his  servant,  and  I have  not  had  orders  to  yield  to 
him  ; but,  as  for  you,  henceforth  do  you  act  so  as  not  to  forget 
proprieties.”  Finally  the  minister  himself,  thoroughly  astonished 
at  all  that  had  passed,  wras  obliged  to  come  to  terms  and  to  salute 
his  wife.  Three  days  after,  the  festivities  being  ended,  he  re- 
turned to  the  palace.  The  king  asked  familiarly  if  all  had  passed 
off  happily.  The  minister  narrated  in  detail  the  history  of  his 
marriage,  the  unexpected  arrival  of  his  wife,  and  how  she  had  con- 
ducted herself.  The  king,  who  was  a man  of  sense,  replied : “ You 
have  acted  unjustly  toward  your  wife.  She  appears  to  me  to  be  a 
woman  of  spirit  and  extraordinary  tact.  Her  behavior  is  admira- 
ble, and  I don’t  know  how  to  praise  her  enough.  I hope  you  will 
repair  the  WTongs  you  have  done  her.”  The  minister  promised, 
and  some  days  later  solemnly  conferred  upon  his  wife  one  of  the 
highest  dignities  of  the  court. 

The  woman  wTho  is  legally  espoused,  whether  widow  or  slave, 
enters  into  and  shares  the  entire  social  estate  of  her  husband. 
Even  if  she  be  not  noble  by  birth  she  becomes  so  by  marrying  a 
noble,  and  her  children  are  so  likewise.  If  two  brothers,  for  ex- 
ample, espouse  an  aunt  and  a niece,  and  the  niece  falls  to  the  lot 
of  the  elder,  she  becomes  thereby  the  elder  sister,  and  the  aunt 
will  be  treated  as  a younger  sister.  This  relation  of  elder  and 
younger  sisters  makes  an  immense  difference  in  life,  position,  and 
treatment,  in  all  Chinese  Asia. 

It  is  not  proper  for  a widow  to  remarry.  In  the  higher  classes 
°a  widow  is  expected  to  weep  for  her  deceased  husband,  and  to  wear 
mourning  all  her  life.  It  would  be  infamy  for  her,  however  young, 
to  marry  a second  time.  The  king  who  reigned  1469-1494  excluded 
children  of  remarried  widows  from  competition  at  the  public  exami- 


SOCIAL  LIFE.— WOMAN  AND  THE  FAMILY. 


255 


nations,  and  from  admittance  to  any  official  employment.  Even 
to  the  present  day  such  children  are  looked  upon  as  illegitimate. 

Among  a people  so  passionate  as  Coreans,  grave  social  disor- 
ders result  from  such  a custom.  The  young  noble  widows  who 
cannot  remarry  become,  in  most  cases,  secretly  or  openly  the  con- 
cubines of  those  who  wish  to  support  them.  The  others  who 
strive  to  live  chastely  are  rudely  exposed  to  the  inroads  of  pas- 
sion. Sometimes  they  are  made  intoxicated  by  narcotics  which  are 
put  in  their  drink,  and  they  wake  to  find  themselves  dishonored. 
Sometimes  they  are  abducted  by  force,  during  the  night,  by  the 
aid  of  hired  bandits.  When  they  become  victims  of  violence, 
there  is  no  remedy  possible.  It  often  happens  that  young  widows 
commit  suicide,  after  the  death  of  their  husbands,  in  order  to 
prove  their  fidelity  and  to  secure  their  honor  and  reputation 
beyond  the  taint  of  suspicion.  Such  women  are  esteemed  models 
of  chastity,  and  there  is  no  end  to  their  praises  among  the  nobles. 
Through  their  influence,  the  king  often  decrees  a memorial  gate- 
way, column,  or  temple,  intended  to  be  a monument  of  their  hero- 
ism and  virtue.  Thus  it  has  often  happened  that  Christian 
widows  begged  of  the  missionary  fathers  permission  to  commit 
suicide,  if  attempts  were  made  to  violate  their  houses  or  their  per- 
sons ; and  it  was  with  difficulty  that  they  could  be  made  to  com- 
prehend the  Christian  doctrine  concerning  suicide. 

The  usual  method  of  self-destruction  is  ja-mun,  or  cutting  the 
throat,  or  opening  the  abdomen  with  a sword.  In  this  the  Coreans 
are  like  the  Japanese,  neck-cutting  or  piercing  being  the  feminine, 
and  hara-kiri  (belly-cutting)  the  masculine,  method  of  ending  life 
at  one’s  own  hands. 

Among  the  common  people,  second  marriages  are  forbidden 
neither  by  law  nor  custom,  but  wealthy  families  endeavor  to  imi- 
tate the  nobles  in  this  custom  as  in  others.  Among  the  poor, 
necessity  knows  no  law.  The  men  must  have  their  food  pre- 
pared for  them,  and  women  cannot,  and  do  not  willingly  die  of 
famine  when  a husband  offers  himself.  Hence  second  marriages 
among  the  lowly  are  quite  frequent. 


Most  of  the  facts  stated  in  this  chapter  are  drawn  from  Dal- 
let’s  “History  of  the  [Roman  Catholic]  Church  in  Corea.”  Mak- 
ing due  allowance  for  the  statements  of  celibate  priests,  who  are 
aliens  in  religion,  nationality,  and  civilization,  the  picture  of  the 
social  life  of  Cho-sen  is  that  of  abominable  heathenism. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 


CHILD  LITE. 

Judging  from  a collection  of  the  toys  of  Corean  children,  and 
from  their  many  terms  of  affection  and  words  relating  to  games 
and  sports,  festivals  and  recreation,  nursery  stories,  etc.,  the  life 
of  the  little  Kim  or  Ni  must  be  a pleasant  one.  For  the  blessings 
of  offspring  the  parents  offer  rice  to  the  god  of  the  household 
( sam-sin-hang ),  whose  tiny  shrine  holds  a place  of  honor  in  some 
ornamental  niche  in  the  best  room.  When  the  baby  begins  to 
grow,  cradles  being  unknown,  the  mother  puts  the  infant  to  sleep 
by  to-tak,  to-tak — patting  it  lightly  on  the  stomach.  When  it  is 
able  to  take  its  first  sjep  across  the  floor — the  tiger-skin  rug  being 
ready  to  ease  its  possible  fall — this  important  household  event, 
spoken  of  with  joy  as  the  ja-pak,  ja-pak,  is  described  to  the  neigh- 
bors. As  the  child  grows  up  and  is  able  to  walk  and  run  about, 
the  hair  is  mostly  shaved  off,  so  that  only  a “ button  of  jade”  is 
left  on  the  top  of  the  head.  This  infantile  tuft  takes  its  name  from 
the  badge  or  togle  worn  on  the  top  of  the  men’s  caps  in  winter. 
A child,  “ three  feet  high,”  very  beautiful  and  well  formed,  docile 
and  strong,  if  a son,  is  spoken  of  “ as  a thousand-mile  horse” — one 
who  promises  to  make  an  alert  and  enduring  man.  A child  noted 
for  filial  piety  will  even  cheerfully  commit  tan-ji — cutting  his  fin- 
ger to  furnish  his  blood  as  a remedy  for  the  sickness  of  father  or 
mother.  Should  the  child  die,  a stone  effigy  or  statue  of  itself  is 
set  up  before  his  grave. 

In  the  capital  and  among  the  higher  classes,  the  children’s 
toys  are  very  handsome,  ranking  as  real  works  of  art,  while  in 
every  class  the  playthings  of  the  tiny  Corean  humanity  form  but 
a miniature  copy  of  the  life  of  their  elders.  Among  the  living  pets, 
the  monkey  is  the  favorite.  These  monkeys  are  fitted  with  jack- 
ets, and  when  plump  and  not  too  mischievous  make  capital  pets 
for  the  boys.  Puppies  share  the  affections  of  the  nursery  with  the 
tiger  on  wheels.  Made  of  paper  pulp  and  painted,  this  harmless 
effigy  of  the  king  of  beasts  is  pulled  about  with  a string.  A 


CHILD  LIFE. 


257 


jumping- jack  is  but  a copy  of  the  little  boy  who  pulls  it.  A jerk 
of  the  string  draws  in  the  pasteboard  tongue,  and  sends  the  trum- 
pet to  his  mouth.  Official  life  is  mirrored  in  the  tasselled  um- 
brella, the  fringed  hats,  and  the  toy-chariot  with  fancy  wheels. 
Other  toys,  such  as  rattles,  flags,  and  drums,  exactly  imitate  the 
larger  models  with  which  the  grown-up  men  and  women  amuse 
themselves.  All  these  are  named,  fashioned,  and  decorated  in  a 
style  peculiarly  Corean.  Among  the  most  common  of  the  chil- 
dren’s plays  are  the  following  : A ling  is  hidden  in  a heap  of  sand, 
and  the  urchins  poke  sticks  into  and  through  the  pile  to  find  it. 
Whoever  transfixes  the  circlet  wins  the  game,  suggesting  our  girls’ 
game  of  grace-hoop,  though  often  taking  a longer  time.  Ro- 
settes or  pinwheels  of  paper  are  made  and  fastened  on  the  end 
of  sticks.  Running  before  the  breeze,  the  miniature  windmills 
afford  hilarious  delight. 

The  children’s  way  of  bringing  rain  is  to  move  the  lips  up  and 
down,  distending  the  cheeks  and  pressing  the  breath  through  the 
Ups.  Playing  “ dinner  ” with  tiny  cups  and  dishes,  and  imitating 
the  ponderous  etiquette  of  their  elders,  is  a favorite  amusement. 
See-saw  is  rougher  and  more  exhilarating.  Games  of  response 
are  often  played  with  hands,  head,  or  feet,  in  which  one  watches 
the  motions  of  his  rival,  opens  or  shuts  his  hands,  and  pays  a for- 
feit or  loses  the  game  when  a false  move  is  made.  For  the  coast- 
dwellers,  the  sea-shore,  with  the  rocks  which  are  the  refuge  of 
the  shell-fish,  is  the  inexhaustible  playground  of  the  children. 
Looking  down  in  the  clear  deep  water  of  the  archipelago  they  see 
the  coral  reefs,  the  bright  flower-gardens  of  marine  plants,  and 
shoals  of  striped,  banded,  crimson-tailed,  and  green-finned  fish, 
which,  in  the  eastern  seas,  glitter  with  tints  of  gold  and  silver. 
The  children,  half  naked,  catch  the  crabs  and  lobsters,  learning 
how  to  hold  their  prizes  after  many  a nab  and  pinch,  which  bring 
infantile  tears  and  squalls.  One  of  the  common  playthings  of 
Corean  children,  the  “baby’s  rattle,”  is  the  dried  leathery  egg  of 
the  skate,  which  with  a few  pebbles  inside  makes  the  infant,  if  not 
its  parents,  happy  with  the  din. 

Besides  a game  of  patting  and  dabbling  in  the  water — chal^pak, 
chal-pak — boys  amuse  themselves  by  fishing  with  hook  and  line  or 
net.  One  method  is  to  catch  fish  by  means  of  the  yek-kui.  This 
is  a plant  of  peppery  taste,  which  poisons  or  stupefies  the  fish  that 
bite  the  tempting  tip,  making  them  easy  prey.  More  serious  in- 
door games  played  by  women  and  children  are  pa-tok,  or  back- 
1? 


258 


COREA. 


gammon ; sang-pi-yen,  dominoes ; siu-tu-chen,  game  of  eight? 
cards  ; and  chang-keui,  or  chess.  All  these  pastimes  are  quite 
different  from  ours  of  the  same  name,  yet  enough  like  them  to  be 
recognized  as  belonging  to  the  species  named.  The  festivals 
most  intensely  enjoyed  by  the  children  are  those  of  “Treading  the 
Bridges,”  “The  Meeting  of  the  Star  Lovers,”  and  the  “Mouse  Fire.” 
There  is  one  evening  in  the  year  in  which  men  and  children,  as 
well  as  women,  are  allowed  to  be  out  in  the  streets  of  the  capital. 
The  people  spend  the  greater  part  of  the  night  in  passing  and  re- 
passing upon  the  little  bridges  of  stone.  It  is  a general  “ night  out  ” 
for  all  the  people.  Comedians,  singers,  harlequins,  and  merry- 
makers of  all  kinds  are  abroad,  and  it  being  moonlight,  all  have  a 
good  time  in  “ treading  the  bridges.”  On  the  seventh  day  of  the 
seventh  month,  the  festival  honored  in  China,  Corea,  and  Japan 
takes  place,  for  which  children  wait,  in  expectation,  many  days  in 
advance.  Sweetmeats  are  prepared,  and  bamboos  strung  with  strips 
of  colored  paper  are  the  symbols  of  rejoicing.  On  this  night  the 
two  stars  Capricornus  and  Alpha  Lyra  (or  the  Herd-boy  and  Spin- 
ning Maiden)  are  in  conjunction  in  the  milky  way 1 (or  the  Biver  of 
Heaven),  and  wishes  made  at  this  time  are  supposed  to  come  true. 

Chu-pul,  or  the  Mouse  Fire,  occurs  in  the  twelfth  month,  on  the 
day  of  the  Mouse  (or  rat).  Children  light  brands  or  torches  of  dry 
reeds  or  straw,  and  set  fire  to  the  dry  herbage,  stubble,  and  shrub- 
bery on  the  borders  of  the  roads,  in  order  to  singe  the  hair  of  the 
various  field  or  ground-burrowing  animals,  or  burn  them  out,  so 
as  to  obtain  a plentiful  crop  of  cotton. 

At  school,  the  pupils  study  according  to  the  method  all  over 
Asia,  that  is,  out  loud,  and  noisily.  This  kang-siong,  or  deafening 
buzz,  is  supposed  to  be  necessary  to  sound  knowledge.  Besides 
learning  the  Chinese  characters  and  the  vernacular  alphabet,  with 
tongue,  ear,  eye,  and  pen,  the  children  master  the  ku-ku  (“nine 
times  nine  ”),  or  the  multiplication  table,  and  learn  to  work  the 
four  simple  rules  of  arithmetic,  and  even  fractions,  involution,  and 
evolution  on  the  chon-pan,  or  sliding  numeral  frame.  A “red 
mark  ” is  a vermilion  token  of  a good  lesson,  made  by  the  exam- 
iner ; and  for  a good  examination  passed  rewards  are  given  in  the 
form  of  a first-rate  dinner,  or  one  or  all  of  “ the  four  friends  of 
the  study  table  ” — pens,  ink,  paper,  and  inkstand,  or  brushes, 
sticks  of  “India”  ink,  rolls  of  unsized  paper,  and  an  inkstone 


See  “ The  Meeting  of  the  Star  Lovers,”  in  Japanese  Fairy  World. 


CHILD  LIFE. 


259 


or  water-dropper.  Writing  a good  autograph  signature — “one’s 
own  pen” — is  highly  commended.  Sometimes  money  is  given  for 
encouragement,  which  the  promising  lad  saves  up  in  an  earthen 
savings-bank.  Not  a few  of  the  youth  of  the  humbler  classes, 
who  work  in  the  fields  by  day  and  study  the  characters  by  night, 
rise  to  be  able  officers  who  fill  high  stations. 

The  French  missionaries  assure  us  that  the  normal  Corean  is 
fond  of  children,  especially  of  sons,  who  in  his  eyes  are  worth  ten 
times  as  much  as  daughters.  Such  a thing  as  exposure  of  children 
is  almost  unknown.  In  times  of  severe  famine  this  may  happen 
after  failure  to  give  away  or  sell  for  a season,  that  they  may  be 
bought  back.  Parents  rarely  find  their  family  too  numerous. 

The  first  thing  inculcated  in  a child’s  mind  is  respect  for  his 
father.  All  insubordination  is  immediately  and  sternly  repressed. 
Far  different  is  it  with  the  mother.  She  yields  to  her  boy’s 
caprices  and  laughs  at  his  faults  and  vices  without  rebuke.  The 
child  soon  learns  that  a mother’s  authority  is  next  to  nothing.  In 
speaking  of  his  father  a lad  often  adds  the  words  “ severe,” 
“terrible,”  implying  the  awe  and  profound  respect  in  which  he 
holds  his  father.  (Something  of  the  same  feeling  prevails  as  in 
Japan,  where  the  four  dreadful  things  which  a lad  most  fears,  and 
which  are  expressed  in  a rhyming  proverb,  are : “Earthquake, 
wind,  fire,  and  father,”  or  “daddy.”)  On  the  contrary,  in  speak- 
ing of  his  mother,  he  adds  the  words  “good,”  “indulgent,”  “I’m 
not  afraid  of  her,”  etc.  A son  must  not  play  nor  smoke  in  his 
father’s  presence,  nor  assume  free  or  easy  posture  before  him.  For 
lounging,  there  is  a special  room,  like  a nursery.  The  son  waits 
on  his  father  at  meals  and  gets  his  bed  ready.  If  he  is  old  or  sick- 
ly, the  son  sleeps  near  him  and  does  not  quit  his  side  night  or  day. 
If  he  is  in  prison  the  son  takes  up  his  abode  in  the  vicinity,  to 
communicate  with  his  parent  and  furnish  him  with  luxuries.  In 
case  of  imprisonment  for  treason,  the  son  at  the  portal,  on  bended 
knees  day  and  night,  awaits  the  sentence  that  will  reduce  himself 
to  slavery.  If  the  accused  is  condemned  to  exile,  the  son  must 
at  least  accompany  his  father  to  the  end  of  the  journey,  and,  in 
some  cases,  share  banishment  with  him.  Meeting  his  father  in 
the  street,  the  son  must  make  profound  salute  on  his  knees,  in 
the  dust,  or  in  the  ditch.  In  writing  to  him,  he  must  make  free 
use  of  the  most  exaggerated  honorifics  which  the  Corean  knows. 

The  practice  of  adoption  is  common,  as  it  is  abnormally  so 
in  all  countries  where  ancestral  worship  is  prevalent  and  underlies 


260 


COREA. 


all  religions.  The  preservation  of  the  family  line  is  the  supreme 
end  and  aim  of  life.  In  effect  all  those  persons  are  descendants 
of  particular  ancestor^  who  will  keep  up  the  ancestral  sacrifices, 
guard  the  tablets  and  observe  the  numerous  funeral  and  mourning 

O O 

ceremonies  which  make  life  such  a burden  in  Eastern  Asia.  Daugh- 
ters are  not  adopted,  because  they  cannot  accomplish  the  pre- 
scribed rites.  "When  parents  have  only  a daughter,  they  marry 
her  to  an  adopted  son,  who  becomes  head  of  the  family  so  adopted 
into.  Even  the  consent  of  the  adopted,  or  of  his  parents,  is  not 
always  requisite,  for  as  it  is  a social,  as  well  as  a religious  neces- 
sity, the  government  may  be  appealed  to,  and,  in  case  of  need, 
forces  acceptance  of  the  duty.  In  this  manner,  as  in  the  patri- 
archal age  of  biblical  history,  a man  may  be  coerced  into  “ rais- 
ing up  seed  ” to  defunct  ancestors. 

Properly,  an  adoption,  to  be  legal,  ought  to  be  registered  at 
the  office  of  the  Board  of  Rites,  but  this  practice  has  fallen  into 
disuse,  and  it  is  sufficient  to  give  public  notice  of  the  fact  among 
the  two  families  concerned.  An  adoption  once  made  cannot  be 
void  except  by  a decree  from  the  Tribunal  of  Rites,  which  is  diffi- 
cult to  obtain.  In  practice,  the  system  of  adoption  results  in 
many  scandals,  quarrels,  jealousies,  and  all  the  train  of  evils  which 
one  familiar  with  men  and  women,  as  they  are,  might  argue  a 
priori  without  the  facts  at  hand.  The  iron  fetters  of  Asiatic  in- 
stitutions cannot  suppress  human  nature. 

Primogeniture  is  the  rigid  rule.  Younger  sons,  at  the  time  of 
their  marriage,  or  at  other  important  periods  of  life,  receive  pater- 
nal gifts,  now  more,  now  less,  according  to  usage,  rank,  the  family 
fortune,  etc.,  but  the  bulk  of  the  property  belongs  to  the  oldest 
son,  on  whom  the  younger  sons  look  as  their  father.  He  is  the 
head  of  the  family,  and  regards  his  father’s  children  as  his  own.  In 
all  Eastern  Asia  the  bonds  of  family  are  much  closer  than  among 
Caucasian  people  of  the  present  time.  All  the  kindred,  even  to 
the  fifteenth  or  twentieth  degree,  whatever  their  social  position, 
rich  or  poor,  educated  or  illiterate,  officials  or  beggars — form  a 
clan,  a tribe,  or  more  exactly  one  single  family,  all  of  whose  mem- 
bers have  mutual  interests  to  sustain.  The  house  of  one  is  the 
house  of  the  other,  and  each  will  assist  to  his  utmost  another  of 
the  clan  to  get  money,  office,  or  advantage.  The  law  recognizes 
this  system  by  levring  on  the  clan  the  imposts  and  debts  which 
individuals  of  it  cannot  pay,  holding  the  sodality  responsible  for 
the  indivdual.  To  this  they  submit  without  complaint  or  protest 


CHILD  LIFE. 


261 


Instead  of  the  family  being  a unit,  as  in  the  west,  it  is  only 
the  fragment  of  a clan,  a segment  in  the  great  circle  of  kindred. 
The  number  of  terms  expressing  relationship  is  vastly  greater  and 
much  more  complex  than  in  English.  One  is  amazed  at  the  ex- 
uberance of  the  national  vocabulary  in  this  respect.  The  Coreans 
are  fully  as  clannish  as  the  Chinese,  and  much  more  so  than  the 
Irish ; and  in  this,  as  in  the  Middle  Kingdom,  lies  one  great 
obstacle  to  Christianity  or  to  any  kind  of  individual  reform.  Mar- 
riage cannot  take  place  between  two  persons  having  the  same 
family  cognomen.  There  are  in  the  kingdom  only  one  hundred 
and  forty  or  fifty  family,  or  rather  clan  names.  Yet  many  of  these 
names  are  widespread  through  the  realm.  All  are  formed  of  a 
single  Chinese  letter,  except  six  or  seven,  which  are  composed  of 
two  characters.  To  distinguish  the  different  families  who  bear  the 
same  patronymic,  they  add  the  name  which  they  call  the  pu,  or 
Gentile  name,  to  indicate  the  place  whence  the  family  originally 
came.  In  the  case  of  two  persons  wishing  to  marry,  if  this  pu  is 
the  same,  they  are  in  the  eyes  of  the  law  relatives,  and  marriage 
is  forbidden.  If  the  pu  of  each  is  different,  they  may  wed.  The 
most  common  names,  such  as  Kim  and  Ni — answering  to  our  Smith 
and  Jones — have  more  than  a score  of  pu,  which  arise  from  more 
than  twenty  families,  the  place  of  whose  origin  is  in  each  case 
different.  The  family  name  is  never  used  alone.  It  is  always  fol- 
lowed by  a surname  ; or  only  the  word  so-pang,  junior,  sang-wen, 
senior,  lord,  sir,  etc. 

Male  adults  usually  have  three  personal  names,  that  given  in 
childhood,  the  common  proper  name,  and  the  common  legal  name, 
while  to  this  last  is  often  added  the  title.  Besides  these,  various 
abases,  nicknames,  fanciful  and  punning  appellatives,  play  their 
part,  to  the  pleasure  or  vexation  of  their  object.  This  custom  is 
the  source  of  endless  confusion  in  documents  and  common  life. 
It  was  formerly  in  vogue  in  Japan,  but  was  abolished  by  the  mi- 
kado’s government  in  1872,  and  now  spares  as  much  trouble  to 
tongue,  tpyes,  and  pens,  as  a reform  in  our  alphabet  and  spelling 
would  save  the  English-speaking  world.  As  in  Nippon,  a Corean 
female  has  but  one  name  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave.  The  titles 
“Madame,”  or  “Madame  widow,”  are  added  in  mature  life.  As 
in  old  Japan,  the  common  people  do  not,  as  a rule,  have  distin- 
guishing individual  names,  and  among  them  nicknames  are  very 
common.  Corean  etiquette  forbids  that  the  name  of  father,  mother, 
or  made  be  used  in  conversation,  or  even  pronounced  aloud. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 


HOUSEKEEPING,  DIET,  AND  COSTUME. 

Corean  architecture  is  in  a very  primitive  condition.  The  cas- 
tles, fortifications,  temples,  monasteries  and  public  buildings  can- 
not approach  in  magnificence  those  of  Japan  or  China.  The 
country,  though  boasting  hoary  antiquity,  has  few  ruins  in  stone. 
The  dwellings  are  tiled  or  thatched  houses,  almost  invariably  one 
story  high.  In  the  smaller  towns  these  are  not  arranged  in  regu- 
lar streets,  but  scattered  here  and  there.  Even  in  the  cities  and 
capital  the  streets  are  narrow  and  tortuous. 

In  the  rural  parts,  the  houses  of  the  wealthy  are  embosomed  in 
beautiful  groves,  •with  gardens  surrounded  by  charming  hedges  or 
fences  of  rushes  or  split-bamboo.  The  cities  show  a greater  display 
of  red-tiled  roofs,  as  only  the  officials  and  nobles  are  allowed  this 
sumptuary  honor.  Shingles  are  not  much  used.  The  thatching 
is  of  rice  or  barley  straw,  cut  close,  with  ample  eaves,  and  often 
finished  with  great  neatnesss. 

A low  wall  of  uncemented  stone,  five  or  six  feet  high,  sur- 
rounds the  dwelling,  and  when  kept  in  repair  gives  an  air  of  neat- 
ness and  imposing  solidity  to  the  estate.  Often  a pretty  rampart 
of  flat  bamboo  or  rushes,  plaited  in  the  herring-bone  pattern,  sur- 
mounts the  wall,  which  may  be  of  pebbles  or  stratified  rock  and 
mortared.  Sometimes  the  rampart  is  of  wattle,  covered  with 
smooth  white  plaster,  which,  with  the  gateway,  is  also  surmounted 
by  an  arched  roofing  of  tiles.  Instead  of  regular  slanting  lines  of 
gables,  one  meets  with  the  curved  and  pagoda-like  roofs  seen  in 
China,  with  a heavy  central  ridge  and  projecting  ornaments  of 
fire-hardened  clay,  like  the  “stirrup”  or  “devil”  tiles  of  Japan. 
These  curves  greatly  add  to  the  beauty  of  a Corean  house,  because 
they  break  the  monotony  of  the  lines  of  Corean  architecture. 

Doors,  windows,  and  lintels  are  usually  rectangular,  and  are 
set  in  regularly,  instead  of  being  made  odd  to  relieve  the  eye,  as 
in  Japan.  Bamboo  is  a common  material  for  window-frames. 


HOUSEKEEPING,  DIET,  AND  COSTUME. 


263 


The  foundations  are  laid  on  stone  set  in  the  earth,  and  the 
floor  of  the  humble  is  part  of  the  naked  planet.  People  one 
grade  above  the  poorest  cover  the  hard  ground  with  sheets  of 
oiled  paper,  which  serve  as  rugs  or  a carpet.  For  the  better  class 
a floor  of  wood  is  raised  a foot  or  so  above  the  earth,  but  in  the 
sleeping-  and  sitting-room  of  the  average  family,  the  “kang” 
forms  a vaulted  floor,  bed,  and  stove. 

The  kang  is  characteristic  of  the  human  dwelling  in  north- 
eastern Asia.  It  is  a kind  of  tubular  oven,  in  which  human 
beings,  instead  of  potatoes,  are  baked.  It  is  as  though  we  should 
make  a bedstead  of  bricks,  and  put  foot-stoves  under  it.  The  floor 
is  bricked  over,  or  built  of  stone  over  flues,  which  run  from  the 
fireplace,  at  one  end  of  the  house,  to  the  chimney  at  the  other. 
The  fire  which  boils  the  pot  or  roasts  the  meat  is  thus  utilized  to 
warm  those  sitting  or  sleeping  in  the  room  beyond.  The  difficulty 
is  to  keep  up  a regular  heat  without  being  alternately  chilled  or 
smothered.  With  wood  fuel  this  is  almost  impossible,  but  by 
dint  of  tact  and  regulated  draught  may  be  accomplished.  As  in 
the  Swedish  porcelain  stove,  a pail  of  live  coals  keeps  up  a good 
warmth  all  night.  The  kangs  survive  in  the  kotatsii  of  Japan. 

The  “fire”  in  sentiment  and  fact  is  the  centre  of  the  Corean 
home,  and  the  native  phrase,  “he  has  put  out  his  fire,”  is  the  dire 
synonym  denoting  that  a man  is  not  only  cold  and  fasting,  but  in 
want  of  the  necessities  of  life. 

Bed-clothes  are  of  silk,  wadded  cotton,  thick  paper,  and  tiger, 
wolf,  or  dog  skins,  the  latter  often  sewn  in  large  sheets  like  a car- 
pet. Comfort,  cleanliness,  and  luxury  make  the  bed  of  the  noble 
on  the  warm  brick  in  winter,  or  cool  matting  in  summer;  but 
with  the  poor,  the  cold  of  winter,  and  insects  of  summer,  with  the 
dirt  and  rags,  make  sleeping  in  a Corean  hut  a hardship.  Cush- 
ions or  bags  of  rice-chaff  form  the  pillows  of  the  rich.  The  poor 
man  uses  a smooth  log  of  wood  or  slightly  raised  portion  of  the 
floor  to  rest  his  head  upon.  “Weariness  can  snore  upon  the  flint 
when  resty  sloth  finds  the  down  pillow  hard.” 

Three  rooms  are  the  rule  in  an  average  house.  These  are  for 
cooking,  eating,  and  sleeping.  In  the  kitchen  the  most  noticeable 
articles  are  the  ang-pak,  or  large  earthen  jars,  for  holding  rice, 
barley,  or  water.  Each  of  them  is  big  enough  to  hold  a man 
easily.  The  second  room,  containing  the  kang,  is  the  sleeping 
apartment,  and  the  next  is  the  best  room  or  parlor.  Little  furni- 
ture is  the  rule.  Coreans,  like  the  Japanese,  sit,  not  cross-legged. 


264 


COREA. 


but  on  their  heels.  Among  the  well-to-do,  dog-skins,  or  kat-tei, 
cover  the  floor  for  a carpet,  or  splendid  tiger-skins  serve  as  rugs. 
Matting  is  common,  the  best  being  in  the  south. 

As  in  Japan,  the  meals  are  served  on  the  floor  on  low  sang,  or 
little  tables,  one  for  each  guest,  sometimes  one  for  a couple.  The 
best  table  service  is  of  porcelain,  and  the  ordinary  sort  of  earthen- 
ware with  white  metal  or  copper  utensils.  The  table-cloths  are  of 
fine  glazed  paper  and  resemble  oiled  silk.  No  knives  or  forks  are 
used  ; instead,  chopsticks,  laid  in  paper  cases,  and,  what  is  more 
common  than  in  China  or  Japan,  spoons  are  used  at  every  meaL 


Table  Spread  for  Festal  Occasions. 


The  climax  of  aesthetic  taste  occurs  when  a set  of  historic  porce- 
lain and  faience  of  old  Corean  manufacture  and  decoration,  with 
the  tall  and  long-spouted  teapot,  are  placed  on  the  pearl-inlaid 
table  and  filled  with  native  delicacies. 

The  walls  range  in  quality  of  decoration  from  plain  mud  to  col- 
ored plaster  and  paper.  The  Corean  wall-paper  is  of  all  grades, 
sometimes  as  soft  as  silk,  or  as  thick  as  canvas.  Sa-peik  is  a favor- 
ite reddish  earth  or  mortar  which  serves  to  rough-cast  in  rich 
color  tones  the  walls  of  a room. 

Pictures  are  not  common  ; the  artistic  sense  being  satisfied 


HOUSEKEEPING,  DIET,  AND  COSTUME. 


265 


with  scrolls  of  handsome  Chinese  characters  containing  moral 
and  literary  gems  from  the  classics,  or  the  caligraphic  triumph  of 
some  king,  dignitary,  or  literary  friend.  To  possess  a sign-manual 
or  autograph  scrap  of  Yung,  Hong,  or  O,  the  three  most  renowned 
men  of  Cho-sen,  is  reckoned  more  than  a golden  manuscript  on 
azure  paper. 

The  windows  are  square  and  latticed  without  or  within,  and 
covered  with  tough  paper,  either  oiled  or  unsized,  and  moving  in 
grooves — the  originals  of  the  Japanese  sliding-doors  and  win- 
dows. In  every  part  of  a Corean  house,  paper  plays  an  important 
and  useful  part. 

Very  fine  Venetian  blinds  are  made  of  threads  split  from  the 
ever-useful  bamboo,  which  secures  considerable  variety  in  window 
decoration.  The  doors  are  of  wood,  paper,  or  plaited  bamboo. 
Glass  was,  till  recently,  a nearly  unknown  luxury  in  Corea  among 
the  common  people.  Even  with  the  nobles,  it  is  rather  a curiosity. 
The  windows  being  made  of  oiled  or  thin  paper,  glass  is  not  a ne- 
cessity. This  fact  will  explain  the  eagerness  of  the  people  to  pos- 
sess specimens  of  this  transparent  novelty.  Even  old  porter  and 
ale  bottles,  which  sailors  have  thrown  away,  are  eagerly  picked  up, 
begged,  bought,  or  stolen.  An  old  medicine-vial,  among  the  Co- 
reans,  used  to  fetch  the  price  of  a crystal  goblet  among  us.  The 
possessor  of  such  a prize  as  a Bass’  ale  bottle  will  exhibit  it  to  his 
neighbor  as  a rare  curio  from  the  Western  barbarians,  just  as  an 
American  virtuoso  shows  off  his  last  new  Satsuma  vase  or  box  of 
Soochow  lacquer.  When  English  ship  captains,  visiting  the  coast, 
gave  the  Coreans  a bottle  of  wine,  the  bottle,  after  being  emptied, 
was  always  carefully  returned  with  extreme  politeness  as  an  article 
of  great  value.  The  first  Corean  visitor  to  the  American  expedi- 
tion of  1871,  went  into  ecstacies,  and  his  face  budded  into  smiles 
hitherto  thought  impossible  to  the  grim  Corean  visage,  because 
the  cook  gave  him  an  arm-load  of  empty  ale-bottles.  The  height 
of  domestic  felicity  is  reached  when  a Corean  householder  can 
get  a morsel  of  glass  to  fasten  into  his  window  or  sliding-door, 
and  thus  gaze  on  the  outer  world  through  this  “ loophole  of  re- 
treat.” This  not  only  saves  him  from  the  disagreeable  necessity 
of  punching  a finger-hole  through  the  paper  to  satisfy  his  curi- 
osity, but  gives  him  the  advantage  of  not  being  seen,  and  of  keep- 
ing out  the  draft.  When  a whole  pane  has  been  secured,  it  is 
hard  to  state  whether  happiness  or  pride  reigns  uppermost  in  the 
owner’s  bosom. 


266 


COREA. 


Candlesticks  are  either  tall  and  upright,  resting  on  the  floor 
in  the  Japanese  style,  or  dish-lamps  of  common  oil  are  used. 

Flint  and  steel  are  used  to  ignite  matches  made  of  chips  of 
wood  dipped  in  sulphur,  by  which  a “fire-flower”  is  made  to 
blossom,  or  in  more  prosaic  English,  a flame  is  kindled.  Phos- 
phorus matches,  imported  from  Japan,  are  called  by  a word  signi- 
fying “fire-sprite,”  “will-of-the-wisp,”  or  ignis-fatuus. 

Usually  in  a gentlemen’s  house  there  is  an  ante-room  or  vesti- 
bule, in  which  neighbors  and  visitors  sit  and  talk,  smoke  or  drink. 
In  this  place  much  freedom  is  allowed  and  formalities  are  laid 
aside.  Here  are  the  facilities  and  the  atmosphere  which  in  West- 
ern lands  are  found  in  clubs,  coffee-  and  ale-houses,  or  obtained 
from  newspapers.  One  such,  of  which  the  picture  is  before  us, 
has  in  it  seats,  and  looks  out  on  a garden  or  courtyard.  On  a 
ledge  or  window-seat  are  vases  of  blossoms  and  cut  flowers;  a 
smaller  vase  holds  fans,  and  another  is  presumably  full  of  to- 
bacco or  some  other  luxury.  Short  eave-curtains  and  longer  dra- 
pery at  the  side,  give  an  air  of  inviting  comfort  to  these  free 
and  easy  quarters,  where  news  and  gossip  are  exchanged.  These 
oi-tiang,  or  outer  apartments,  are  for  strangers  and  men  only, 
and  women  are  never  expected  or  allowed  to  be  present. 

The  Ching-ja  is  a small  house  or  room  on  the  bank  of  a river, 
or  overlooking  some  bit  of  natural  scenery,  to  which  picnic  par- 
ties resort,  the  Coreans  most  heartily  enjoying  out-door  festivity, 
in  places  which  sky,  water,  and  foliage  make  beautiful  to  the  eye. 

There  are  often  inscribed  on  the  portals,  in  large  Chinese 
characters,  moral  mottoes  or  poetical  sentiments,  such  as  “ Enter 
happiness,  like  breezes  bring  the  spring,  and  depart  evil  spirit  as 
snow  melts  in  water.”  Before  a new  house  is  finished,  a sheet  of 
pure  white  paper,  in  which  are  enclosed  some  nip,  or  “cash,”  with 
grains  of  rice  which  have  been  steeped  in  wine,  is  nailed  or 
fastened  on  the  wall,  over  the  door,  and  becomes  the  good  spirit 
or  genius  of  the  house,  sacrifices  being  duly  offered  to  it.  In 
more  senses  than  one,  the  spirit  that  presides  over  too  many  Co- 
rean  households  is  the  alcohol  spirit. 

The  Corean  liquor,  by  preference,  is  brewed  or  distilled  from 
rice,  millet,  or  barley.  These  alcoholic  drinks  are  of  various 
strength,  color,  and  smell,  ranging  from  beer  to  brandy.  In  gen- 
eral their  beverages  are  sufficiently  smoky,  oily,  and  alcoholic  to 
Western  tastes,  as  the  fusel-oil  usually  remains  even  in  the  best 
products  of  their  stills.  No  trait  of  the  Coreans  has  more  im- 


HOUSEKEEPING,  DIET,  AND  COSTUME. 


267 


pressed  their  numerous  visitors,  from  Hamel  to  the  Americans, 
than  their  love  of  all  kinds  of  strong  drink,  from  ale  to  whiskey. 
The  common  verdict  is,  “They  are  greatly  addicted  to  the  wor- 
ship of  Bacchus.”  The  Corean  vocabulary  bears  ample  witness  to 
the  thorough  acquaintance  of  the  people  with  the  liquor  made 
from  grain  by  their  rude  processes.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
peninsula  were  hard  drinkers  even  in  the  days  of  Fuyu  and  Koko- 
rai.  No  sooner  were  the  ports  of  modern  Cho-sen  open  to  com- 
merce than  the  Chinese  established  liquor-stores,  while  European 
wines,  brandies,  whiskeys,  and  gins  have  entered  to  vary  the  Co- 
rean’s  liquid  diet  and  increase  the  national  drunkenness. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  peasant,  though  living  between  the 
two  great  tea-producing  coun tries  of  the  world — Japan  and  China — 
and  in  the  latitude  of  tea-plantations,  scarcely  knows  the  taste  of 
tea,  and  the  fragrant  herb  is  as  little  used  as  is  coffee  in  Japan. 
The  most  common  drink,  after  what  the  clouds  directly  furnish,  is 
the  water  in  which  rice  has  been  boiled.  Infusions  of  dried  gin- 
seng, orange-peel,  or  ginger  serve  for  festal  purposes,  and  honey 
when  these  fail ; but  the  word  “ tea,”  or  cha,  serves  the  Corean,  as 
it  does  the  typical  Irishman,  for  a variety  of  infusions  and  decoc- 
tions. With  elastic  charity  the  word  covers  a multitude  of  sins, 
chiefly  of  omission  ; all  that  custom  or  euphony  requires  is  to 
prefix  the  name  of  the  substance  used  to  “ cha  ” and  the  drink  is 
tea — of  some  kind. 

The  staple  diet  has  in  it  much  more  of  meat  and  fat  than  that 
of  the  Japanese.  The  latter  acknowledge  that  the  average  Corean 
can  eat  twice  as  much  as  himself.  Beef,  pork,  fowls,  venison,  fish, 
and  game  are  consumed  without  much  waste  in  rejected  material. 
Nearly  everything  edible  about  an  animal  is  a tidbit,  and  a curi- 
ous piece  of  cookery,  symbolical  of  a generous  feast,  is  often  found 
at  the  board  of  a liberal  host.  This  tang-talk  (which  often  be- 
comes the  “ town-talk  ”)  is  a chicken  baked  and  served  with  its 
feathers,  head,  claws,  and  inwards  intact.  “ To  treat  to  an  entire 
fowl  ” is  said  of  a liberal  host,  and  is  equivalent  to  “killing  the 
fatted  calf.” 

Fish  are  often  eaten  raw  from  tail  to  head,  especially  if  small, 
with  only  a little  seasoning.  Ho-hoi,  or  fish-bone  salad,  is  a deli- 
cacy. Dog-flesh  is  on  sale  among  the  common  butchers’  meats, 
and  the  Coreans  enjoy  it  as  our  Indians  do.  In  the  first  month  of 
the  year,  however,  owing  to  religious  scruples,  no  dog-meat  is 
eaten,  or  dishes  of  canine  origin  permitted. 


268 


COREA. 


The  state  dinner,  given  to  the  Japanese  after  the  treaty,  con- 
sisted of  this  bill  of  fare  : two-inch  squares  of  pastry,  made  of 
flour,  sugar,  and  oil ; heaps  of  boiled  eggs  ; pudding  made  of 
flour,  sesame,  and  honey  ; dried  persimmons  ; “ pine-seeds,”  honey- 
like food  covered  with  roasted  rice  colored  red  and  white  ; macca- 
roni  soup  with  fowl ; boiled  legs  of  pork,  and  wine,  rice  or  millet 
spirit  with  everything.  It  is  customary  to  decorate  the  tables  on 
grand  occasions  with  artificial  flowers,  and  often  the  first  course 
is  intended  more  for  show  than  for  actual  eating.  For  instance, 
when  the  Japanese  party,  feasted  at  Seoul  in  1646,  first  sat  down 
to  the  table,  one  of  them  began  to  help  himself  to  fish,  of  which 
he  was  very  fond.  The  dish  seemed  to  contain  a genuine  cooked 
carp  basted  with  sauce,  but,  to  the  embarrassment  of  the  hungry 
guest,  the  fish  would  not  move.  He  was  relieved  by  the  servant,  who 
told  him  that  it  was  put  on  the  table  only  for  show.  The  courses 
brought  on  later  contained  more  substantial  nourishment,  such  as 
fish,  flesh,  fowl,  vegetables,  soups,  cakes,  puddings  and  tea.  Judg- 
ing from  certain  words  in  the  language,  these  show-dishes  form  a 
regular  feature  at  the  opening  of  banquets.  The  women  cook  rice 
beautifully,  making  it  thoroughly  soft  by  steaming,  while  yet  re- 
taining the  perfect  shape  of  each  grain  by  itself.  Other  well- 
known  dishes  are  barley,  millet,  beans,  taro  (potato  cooked  in  a 
variety  of  ways),  lily-bulbs,  sea-weeds,  acorns,  dai-kon  (radishes), 
turnips,  and  potatoes.  Maccaroni  and  vermicelli  are  used  for  soups 
and  refreshing  lunches.  Apples,  pears,  plums,  grapes,  persimmons, 
and  various  kinds  of  berries  help  to  furnish  the  table,  though  the 
flavor  of  these  is  inferior  to  the  same  fruits  grown  in  our  gardens. 

All  kinds  of  condiments,  mustard,  vinegar,  pepper,  and  a va- 
riety of  home-made  sauces,  are  much  relished.  Itinerant  food- 
sellers  are  not  so  common  as  in  China,  but  butcher-shops  and 
vermicelli  stands  are  numerous.  Two  solid  meals,  with  a light 
breakfast,  is  the  rule.  Opan,  or  midday  rice,  is  the  dinner.  Tai- 
sik  is  a regular  meal.  The  appearance  of  the  evening  star  is  the 
signal  for  a hearty  supper,  and  the  planet  a synonym  for  the  last 
meal  of  the  day.  At  wakes  or  funeral  feasts,  and  on  festal  days, 
the  amount  of  victuals  consumed  is  enormous,  while  a very  palata- 
ble way  of  remembering  the  dead  is  by  the  yum-pok,  or  drinking 
of  sacrificial  wine.  The  Coreans  understand  the  preservative  vir- 
tues of  ice,  and  in  winter  large  quantities  of  this  substance  are 
cut  and  stored  away  for  use  in  the  summer,  in  keeping  fresh  meat 
and  fish.  Their  ice-houses  are  made  by  excavating  the  ground 


HOUSEKEEPING,  DIET,  AND  COSTUME. 


269 


and  covering  over  the  store  with  earth  and  sod,  from  which  in  hot 
weather  they  use  as  may  be  necessary.  These  ice  stores  are  often 
under  the  direction  of  the  government,  especially  when  large 
quantities  of  fish  are  being  preserved  for  rations  of  the  army  in 
time  of  war.  Those  who  oversee  the  work  are  called  “ Officers  of 
the  Refrigerator.” 

One  striking  fault  of  the  Coreans  at  the  table  is  their 
voracity,  and  to  this  trait  of  their  character  Japanese,  French, 
Dutch,  and  Chinese  bear  witness.  It  might  be  supposed  that  a 
Frenchman,  who  eats  lightly,  might  make  a criticism  where  an 
Englishman  would  be  silent ; but  not  so.  AH  reports  concerning 
them  seem  to  agree.  In  this  respect  there  is  not  the  least  differ- 
ence between  the  rich  and  poor,  noble  or  plebeian.  To  eat  much 
is  an  honor,  and  the  merit  of  a feast  consists  not  in  the  quality 
but  in  the  quantity  of  the  food  served.  Little  talking  is  done 
while  eating,  for  each  sentence  might  lose  a mouthful.  Hence, 
since  a capacious  stomach  is  a high  accomplishment,  it  is  the  aim 
from  infancy  to  develop  a belly  having  all  possible  elasticity. 
Often  the  mothers  take  their  babies  upon  their  knees,  and  after 
stuffing  them  with  rice,  like  a wad  in  a gun,  will  tap  them  from 
time  to  time  with  the  paddle  of  a ladle  on  the  stomach,  to  see 
that  it  is  fully  spread  out  or  rammed  home,  and  only  cease  gorg- 
ing when  it  is  physically  impossible  for  the  child  to  swell  up 
more.  A Corean  is  always  ready  to  eat ; he  attacks  whatever  he 
meets  with,  and  rarely  says,  “ Enough.”  Even  between  meals,  he 
will  help  himself  to  any  edible  that  is  offered.  The  ordinary 
portion  of  a laborer  is  about  a quart  of  rice,  which  when  cooked 
makes  a good  bulk.  This,  however,  is  no  serious  hindrance  to  his 
devouring  double  or  treble  the  quantity  when  he  can  get  it.  Eat- 
ing matches  are  common.  When  an  ox  is  slaughtered,  and  the 
beef  is  served  up,  a heaping  bowl  of  the  steaming  mess  does  not 
alarm  any  guest.  Dog-meat  is  a common  article  of  food,  and  the 
canine  sirloins  served  up  in  great  trenchers  are  laid  before  the 
guests,  each  one  having  his  own  small  table  to  himself.  When 
fruits,  such  as  peaches  or  small  melons,  are  served,  they  are 
devoured  without  peeling.  Twenty  or  thirty  peaches  is  considered 
an  ordinary  allowance,  which  rapidly  disappears.  Such  a prodi- 
gality in  victuals  is,  however,  not  common,  and  for  one  feast  there 
are  many  fastings.  Beef  is  not  an  article  of  daily  food  with  the 
peasantry.  Its  use  is  regulated  by  law,  the  butcher  being  a sort 
of  government  official ; and  only  under  extraordinary  circum- 


270 


COREA. 


stances,  as  when  a grand  festival  is  to  be  held,  does  the  king  allow 
an  ox  to  be  killed  in  each  village.  The  Coreans  are  neither  fas- 
tidious in  their  eating  nor  painstaking  in  their  cooking.  Nothing 
goes  to  waste.  All  is  grist  that  comes  to  the  mill  in  their  mouths. 

They  equal  Japanese  in  devouring  raw  fish,  and  uncooked 
food  of  all  kinds  is  swallowed  without  a wry  face.  Even  the 
intestines  pass  among  them  for  delicate  viands.  Among  the 
poorer  classes,  a cooked  fish  is  rarely  seen  on  the  table  ; for  no 
sooner  is  it  caught  than  it  is  immediately  opened  and  devoured. 
The  raw  viands  are  usually  eaten  with  a strong  seasoning  of  pep- 
per or  mustard,  but  they  are  often  swallowed  without  condiment 
of  any  sort.  Often  in  passing  along  the  banks  of  a river,  one  may 
see  men  fishing  with  rod  and  line.  Of  these  some  are  nobles  who 
are  not  able,  or  who  never  wish  to  work  for  a living,  yet  they  will 
fish  for  food  and  sport.  Instead  of  a bag  or  basket  to  contain  the 
game,  or  a needle  to  string  it  upon,  each  fisher  has  at  his  side 
a jar  of  diluted  pepper,  or  a kind  of  soy.  No  sooner  is  a fish 
hooked,  than  he  is  drawn  out,  seized  between  the  two  fingers, 
dipped  into  the  sauce,  and  eaten  without  ceremony.  Bones  do  not 
scare  them.  These  they  eat,  as  they  do  the  small  bones  of  fowls. 

Nationally,  and  individually,  the  Coreans  are  very  deficient  in 
conveniences  for  the  toilet.  Bath-tubs  are  rare,  and  except  in  the 
warmer  days  of  summer,  when  the  river  and  sea  serve  for  immer- 
sion, the  natives  are  not  usually  found  under  water.  The  Japa- 
nese in  the  treaty  expedition  in  1876  had  to  send  bath-tubs  on 
shore  from  their  ships.  Morning  ablutions  are  made  in  a copper 
basin.  The  sponges  which  grow  on  the  west  coast  seem  to  find 
no  market  at  home.  This  neglect  of  more  intimate  acquaintance 
with  water  often  makes  the  lowest  classes  “ look  like  mulattos,” 
as  Hamel  said.  Gutzlaff,  Adams,  and  others,  especially  the  Japa- 
nese, have  noted  this  personal  defect,  and  have  suggested  the 
need  of  soap  and  hot  water.  It  may  be  that  the  contrast  between 
costume  and  cuticle  tempts  to  exaggeration.  People  who  dress 
in  white  clothing  have  special  need  of  personal  cleanliness.  Per- 
haps soap  factories  will  come  in  the  future. 

The  men  are  very  proud  of  their  beards,  and  the  elders  very 
particular  in  keeping  them  white  and  clean.  The  lords  of  crea- 
tion honor  their  beard  as  the  distinctive  glory  and  mark  of  their 
sex.  A man  is  in  misery  if  he  has  only  just  enough  beard  to 
distinguish  him  from  a woman.  A full  crop  of  hair  on  cheek  and 
chin  insures  to  its  possessor  unlimited  admiration,  while  in  Co- 


HOUSEKEEPING,  DIET,  AND  COSTUME. 


271 


rean  billingsgate  there  are  numerous  terms  of  opprobrium  for  a 
short  beard.  Europeans  are  contemptuously  termed  “shorts 
hairs” — with  no  suspicion  of  the  use  of  the  word  in  New  York 
local  politics.  Old  gentlemen  keep  a little  bag  in  which  they 
assiduously  collect  the  combings  of  their  hair,  the  strokings  of 
their  beard  and  parings  of  their  nails,  in  order  that  all  that  be- 
longs to  them  may  be  duly  placed  in  their  coffin  at  death. 

The  human  hair  crop  is  an  important  item  in  trade  with 
China,  to  which  country  it  is  imported  and  sold  to  piece  out  the 
hair-tails  which  the  Chinese,  in  obedience  to  their  Manchiu  con- 
querors, persist  in  wearing.  Some  of  this  hair  comes  from  poor 
women,  but  the  staple  product  is  from  the  heads  of  boys  who 
wear  their  hair  parted  in  the  middle,  and  plaited  in  a long  braid, 
which  hangs  down  their  backs.  At  marriage,  they  cut  this  off, 
and  bind  what  remains  in  a tight,  round  knot  on  the  top  of  the 
scalp,  using  pins  or  not  as  they  please. 

The  court  pages  and  pretty  boys  who  attend  the  magnates, 
usually  rosy-cheeked,  well  fed,  and  effeminate  looking  youths,  do 
not  give  any  certain  indication  of  their  sex,  and  foreigners  are 
often  puzzled  to  know  whether  they  are  male  or  female.  Their 
beardless  faces  and  long  hair  are  set  down  as  belonging  to  women. 
Most  navigators  have  made  this  mistake  in  gender,  and  when  the 
first  embassy  from  Seoul  landed  in  Yokohama,  the  controversy, 
and  perhaps  the  betting,  as  to  the  sex  of  these  nondescripts  was 
very  lively.  Captain  Broughton  declared  that  the  whole  duty  of 
these  pages  seemed  to  be  to  smooth  out  the  silk  dresses  of  the 
grandees.  Officials  and  nobles  cover  their  top-knots  with  neat 
black  nets  of  horse-hair  or  glazed  thread.  Often  country  and 
town  people  wear  a fillet  or  white  band  of  bark  or  leaves  across 
the  forehead  to  keep  the  loose  hair  in  order,  as  the  ancient  Japa- 
nese used  to  do.  Women  coil  their  glossy  black  tresses  into 
massive  knots,  and  fasten  them  with  pins  or  golden,  silver,  and 
brass  rings.  The  heads  of  the  pins  are  generally  shaped  like  a 
dragon.  They  oil  their  hair,  using  a sort  of  vegetable  pomatum. 
Among  the  court  ladies  and  female  musicians  the  styles  of 
coiffure  are  various  ; some  being  very  pretty,  with  loops,  bands, 
waves,  and  “bangs,”  as  the  illustration  on  page  161  shows. 

Corea  is  decidedly  the  land  of  big  hats.  From  their  amplitude 
these  head-coverings  might  well  be  called  “roofs,”  or,  at  least, 
“umbrellas.”  Their  diameter  is  so  great  that  the  human  head 
encased  in  one  of  them  seems  but  as  a hub  in  a cart-wheel.  They 


272 


COREA. 


•would  probably  serve  admirably  as  parachutes  in  leaping  from  a 
high  place.  Under  his  wide-spreading  official  hat  a magistrate 
can  shelter  his  wife  and  family.  It  serves  as  a numeral,  since  a 
company  is  counted  by  hats,  instead  of  heads  or  noses.  How  the 
Corean  dignitary  can  weather  a gale  remains  a mystery,  and,  per- 
haps, the  feat  is  impossible  and  rarely  attempted.  A slim  man  is 
evidently  at  a disadvantage  in  a “Japanese  wind”  or  typhoon. 
The  personal  avoirdupois,  which  is  so  much  admired  in  the  penin- 
sula, becomes  very  useful  as  ballast  to  the  head-sail.  Corean 
magnates,  cast  away  at  sea,  would  not  lack  material  for  ship’s  can- 
vas. In  shape,  the  gentleman’s  hat  resembles  a flower-pot  set  on 
a round  table,  or  a tumbler  on  a Chinese  gong.  Two  feet  is  a 
common  diameter,  thus  making  a periphery  of  six  feet.  The  top 
or  cone,  which  rises  nine  inches  higher,  is  only  three  inches 
wide.  This  chimney-like  superstructure  serves  as  ornament  and 
ventilator.  Its  purpose  is  not  to  encase  the  head,  for  underneath 
the  brim  is  a tight-fitting  skull-cap,  which  rests  on  the  head  and 
is  held  on  by  padded  ties  under  the  ears.  The  average  rim  for 
ordinary  people,  however,  is  about  six  inches  in  radius.  The 
huge  umbrella-hat  of  bleached  bamboo  is  worn  by  gentlemen  in 
mourning.  After  death  it  is  solemnly  pfiaced  on  the  bier,  and 
forms  a conspicuous  object  at  the  funeral.  The  native  name  for 
hat  is  kat  or  /cat-si. 

The  usual  material  is  bamboo,  split  to  the  fineness  of  a thread, 
and  woven  so  as  to  resemble  horse-hair.  The  fabric  is  then  var- 
nished or  lacquered,  and  becomes  perfectly  weather-proof,  resisting 
sun  and  rain,  but  not  wind.  The  prevalence  of  cotton  clothing, 
easily  soaked  and  rendered  uncomfortable,  requires  the  ample  pro- 
tection for  the  back  and  shoulders,  which  these  umbrella-like 
hats  furnish.  In  heavy  rain,  the  kat-no  is  worn,  that  is,  a cone 
of  oiled  paper,  fixed  on  the  hat  in  the  shape  of  a funnel.  Indeed, 
the  umbrella  in  Corea  is  rather  for  a symbol  of  state  and  dignity 
than  for  vulgar  use,  and  is  often  adorned  with  knobs  and  strips. 
Quelpart  Island  is  the  home  of  the  hatters,  whose  fashionable 
wares  supply  the  dandies  and  dignitaries  of  the  capital  and  of  the 
peninsula.  The  highest  officers  of  the  government  have  the  cone 
truncated  or  rounded  at  the  vertex,  and  surmounted  by  a little 
figure  of  a crane  in  polished  silver,  very  handsome  and  durable. 
This  long-legged  bird  is  a symbol  of  civil  office.  “ To  confer  the 
hat,”  means  as  much  to  an  officer  high  in  favor  at  the  court  of 
Seoul  as  to  a cardinal  in  the  Vatican,  only  the  color  is  black,  not 


HOUSEKEEPING,  DIET,  AND  COSTUME. 


273 


red.  It  is  Corean  etiquette  to  keep  the  hat  on,  and  in  this  respect, 
as  well  as  in  their  broad  brims,  the  hermits  resemble  the  Quakers. 
Marriage  and  mourning  are  denoted  also  by  the  hat. 

A variety  of  materials  is  employed  by  other  classes.  Soldiers 
wear  large  black  or  brown  felt  hats,  resembling  Mexican  som- 
breros, which  are  adorned  with  red  horse-hair  or  a peacock’s 
feather,  swung  on  a swivel  button. 

Suspended  from  the  sides,  over  the  ears  and  around  the  neck, 
are  strings  of  round  balls  of  blue  porcelain,  cornelian,  amber,  or 
what  resembles  kauri  gum.  Sometimes  these  ornaments  are  tubu- 
lar, reminding  one  of  the  millinery  of  a cardinal’s  hat. 

For  the  common  people,  plaited  straw  or  rushes  of  varied 
shapes  serve  for  summer,  while  in  winter  shaggy  caps  of  lynx, 
wolf,  bear,  or  deer-skin  are  common,  made  into  Havelock,  Astrac- 
han,  Japanese,  and  other  shapes,  some  resembling  wash-bowls, 
some  being  fluted  or  fan-like,  winged,  sock-shaped,  or  made  like 
a nightcap.  Variety  seems  to  be  the  fashion. 

The  head-dress  of  the  court  nobles  differs  from  that  of  the 
vulgar  as  much  as  the  Pope’s  tiara  differs  from  a cardinal’s 
rubrum.  It  is  a crown  or  helmet,  which,  eschewing  brim,  rises  in 
altitude  to  the  proportions  of  a mitre.  Without  earstrings  or 
necklaces  of  beads,  it  is  yet  highly  ornamental.  One  of  these 
consists  of  a cap,  with  a sort  of  gable  at  the  top.  Another  has  six 
lofty  curving  folds  or  volutes  set  in  it.  On  another  are  designs 
from  the  pa-kwa,  or  sixty-four  mystic  diagrams,  which  are  sup- 
posed to  be  sacred  symbols  of  the  Confucian  philosophy,  and  of 
which  fortune-tellers  make  great  use. 

The  wardrobe  of  the  gentry  consists  of  the  ceremonial  and  the 
house  dress.  The  former,  as  a rule,  is  of  fine  silk,  and  the  latter 
of  coarser  silk  or  cotton.  These  “ gorgeous  Corean  dresses  ” are 
of  pink,  blue,  and  other  rich  colors.  The  official  robe  is  a long 
garment  like  a wrapper,  with  loose,  baggy  sleeves.  This  is  em- 
broidered with  the  stork  or  phoenix  for  civil,  and  with  the  kirin, 
lion,  or  tiger  for  military  officers.  Buttons  are  unknown  and 
form  no  part  of  a Corean’ s attire,  male  or  female,  thus  greatly  re- 
ducing the  labor  of  the  wives  and  mothers  who  ply  the  needle, 
winch  in  Corea  has  an  “ear”  instead  of  an  “eye.”  Strings  and 
girdles,  and  the  shifting  of  the  main  weight  of  the  clothing  to  the 
shoulders,  take  the  place  of  these  convenient,  but  fugitive,  ad- 
juncts to  the  Western  costume.  There  are  few  tailors’  shops,  the 
women  of  each  household  making  the  family  outfit. 

18 


274 


COREA. 


Soldiers  in  full  dress  wear  a sleeveless,  open  surcoat  for  dis- 
play. The  under  dress  of  both  sexes  is  a short  jacket  with  tight 
sleeves,  which  for  men  reaches  to  the  thighs,  and  for  women  only 
to  the  waist,  and  a pair  of  drawers  reaching  from  waist  to  ankle, 
a little  loose  all  the  way  down  for  the  men,  and  tied  at  the  ankles, 
but  for  the  women  made  tight  and  not  tied.  The  females  wear  a 
petticoat  over  this  garment,  so  that  the  Coreans  say  they  dress  like 
Western  women,  and  foreign-made  hosiery  and  under-garments 
are  in  demand.  Although  they  have  a variety  of  articles  of  ap- 
parel easily  distinguishable  to  the  native  eye,  yet  their  general 
style  of  costume  is  that  of  the  wrapper,  stiff,  wide,  and  inflated 
with  abundant  starch  in  summer,  but  clinging  and  baggy  in  win- 
ter. The  rule  is  tightness  and  economy  for  the  working,  ampli- 
tude and  richness  of  material  for  the  affluent,  classes.  The  women 
having  no  pockets  in  then-  dresses,  wear  a little  bag  suspended 
from  their  girdle.  This  is  worn  on  the  right  side,  attached  by 
cords.  These  contain  their  bits  of  jewehy,  scissors,  knife,  a tiger’s 
claw  for  luck,  perfume-bottle  or  sachet,  a tiny  chess-board  in  gold 
or  silver,  etc.  Besides  the  rings  on  their  fingers  the  ladies  wear 
hair-pins  of  gold  ornamented  with  bulbs  or  figures  of  birds.  Many 
of  them  dust  pun,  or  white  powder,  on  their  faces,  and  employ 
various  other  cosmetics,  which  are  kept  in  their  lciong-tai,  or  mir- 
ror toilet-stands  ; in  which  also  may  be  their  so-ha/c,  or  book  con- 
taining niles  of  politeness. 

The  general  type  of  costume  is  that  of  China  under  the  Ming 
dynasty.  To  a Chinaman  a Corean  looks  antiquated,  a curiosity 
in  old  clothes  ; a Japanese  at  a little  distance,  in  the  twilight,  is 
reminded  of  ghosts,  or  the  snowy  heron  of  the  rice-fields,  while 
to  the  American  the  Corean  swell  seems  compounded  chiefly  of 
bed-clothes,  and  in  his  most  elaborate  costume  to  be  still  in  his 
under-garments. 

Plenty  of  starch  in  summer,  and  no  stint  of  cotton  in  winter, 
are  the  needs  of  the  Corean.  His  white  dress  makes  his  com- 
plexion look  darker  than  it  really  is.  The  monotonous  dazzle  of 
bleached  garments  is  relieved  by  the  violet  robes  of  the  magis- 
trate, the  dark  blue  for  the  soldiers,  and  lighter  shades  of  that 
color  in  the  garb  of  the  middle  class  ; the  blue  strip  which  edges 
the  coat  of  the  literary  graduates,  and  the  pink  and  azure  clothes 
of  the  children.  Less  agreeable  is  the  nearness  which  dispels 
illusion.  The  costume,  which  seemed  snowy  at  a distance,  is  seen 
to  be  dingy  and  dirty,  owing  to  an  entire  ignorance  of  soap. 


HOUSEKEEPING,  DIET,  AND  COSTUME. 


275 


The  Corean  dress,  though  simpler  than  the  Chinese,  is  not 
entirely  devoid  of  ornament.  The  sashes  are  often  of  handsome 
blue  silk  or  brocaded  stuff.  The  official  girdles,  or  flat  belts  a few 
inches  wide,  have  clasps  of  gold,  silver,  or  rhinoceros  horn,  and 
are  decorated  with  polished  ornaments  of  gold  or  silver.  For 
magistrates  of  the  three  higher  ranks  these  belts  are  set  -with  blue 
stones  ; for  those  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  grade  with  white  stones, 
and  for  those  below  the  fifth  with  a substance  resembling  horn. 
Common  girdles  are  of  cotton,  hemp  cloth,  or  rope. 

Fans  are  also  a mark  of  rank,  being  made  of  various  materials, 


Gentlemen's  Garments  and  Dress  Patterns. 


especially  silk  or  cloth,  stretched  on  a frame.  The  fan  is  an  in- 
strument of  etiquette.  To  hide  the  face  with  one  is  an  act  of 
politeness.  The  man  in  mourning  must  have  no  other  kind  than 
that  in  which  the  pin  or  rivet  is  of  cow’s  horn.  Oiled  paper  fans 
serve  a variety  of  purposes.  In  another  kind,  the  ribs  of  the 
frame  are  bent  back  double.  The  finer  sort  for  the  nobility  are 
gorgeously  inlaid  with  pearl  or  nacre. 

A kind  of  flat  wand  or  tablet,  seen  in  the  hands  of  nobles, 
ostensibly  to  set  down  orders  of  the  sovereign,  is  made  of  ivory 
for  officers  above,  and  of  wood  for  those  below  the  fourth  grade. 


276 


COREA. 


Another  badge  of  office  is  the  little  wand,  half  way  between  a 
toy  whip  and  a Mercury’s  caduceus,  of  black  lacquered  wood,  with 
cords  of  green  silk.  This  is  carried  by  civil  officers,  and  may  be 
the  original  of  the  Japanese  baton  of  command,  made  of  lacquered 
wood  with  pendant  strips  of  paper. 

Canes  are  carried  by  men  of  the  literary  or  official  class  when 
in  mourning.  These  tall  staves,  which,  from  the  decks  of  Euro- 
pean vessels  sailing  along  the  coast,  have  often  looked  like  spears, 
are  the  sang-chang,  or  smooth  bamboo  staves,  expressive  of  cere- 
monial grief,  and  nothing  more. 

As  the  Coreans  have  no  pockets,  they  make  bags,  girdles,  and 
their  sleeves  serve  instead.  The  women  wear  a sort  of  reticule 
hung  at  the  belt,  and  the  men  a smoking  outfit,  consisting  of  an 
oval  bag  to  hold  his  flint  and  steel,  some  fine-cut  tobacco,  and  a 
long,  narrow  case  for  his  pipe. 

Foot-gear  is  either  of  native  or  of  Chinese  make.  The  laborer 
contents  himself  with  sandals  woven  from  rice-straw,  which  usu- 
ally last  but  a few  days.  A better  sort  is  of  hempen  twine  or  rope, 
with  many  strands  woven  over  the  top  of  the  foot.  A man  in 
mourning  can  wear  but  four-  cords  on  the  upper  part.  Socks  are 
too  expensive  for  the  poor,  except  in  the  winter.  Shoes  made  of 
cotton  are  often  seen  in  the  cities,  having  hempen  or  twine  soles. 
The  low  shoes  of  cloth,  or  velvet,  and  cowhide,  upturned  at  the 
toe,  worn  by  officials,  are  imported  from  China.  Small  feet  do 
not  seem  to  be  considered  a beauty,  and  the  foot-binding  of  the 
Chinese  is  unknown  in  Cho-sen,  as  in  Japan. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 


MOURNING  AND  BURIAL. 

The  fashion  of  mourning,  the  proper  place  and  time  to  shed 
tears  and  express  grief  according  to  regulations,  are  rigidly  pre- 
scribed in  an  official  treatise  or  “ Guide  to  Mourners,”  published 
by  the  government.  The  corpse  must  be  placed  in  a coffin  of 
very  thick  wood,  and  preserved  during  many  months  in  a special 
room  prepared  and  ornamented  for  this  purpose.  It  is  proper  to 
weep  only  in  this  death -chamber,  but  this  must  be  done  three  or 
four  times  daily.  Before  entering  it,  the  mourner  must  don  a 
special  weed,  which  consists  of  a gray  cotton  frock  coat,  tom, 
patched,  and  as  much  soiled  as  possible.  The  girdle  must  be  of 
twisted  straw  and  silk,  made  into  a rope  of  the  thickness  of  the 
wrist.  Another  cord,  the  thickness  of  the  thumb,  is  wound 
round  the  head,  which  is  covered  with  dirty  linen,  each  of  the 
rope’s  ends  falling  upon  the  cheek.  A special  kind  of  sandals 
is  worn,  and  a big  knotty  stick  completes  the  costume  of  woe. 
In  the  prescribed  weeds  the  mourner  enters  the  death-chamber 
in  the  morning  on  rising,  and  before  each  meal.  He  carries  a little 
table  filled  with  food,  which  he  places  upon  a tray  at  the  side  of 
the  coffin.  The  person  who  is  master  of  the  mourners  presides 
at  the  ceremonies.  Prostrate,  and  struck  by  the  stick,  he  utters 
dolorous  groans,  sounding  “ai-ko”  if  for  a parent.  For  other  rela- 
tives he  groans  out  “ oi,  oi.”  According  to  the  noise  and  length 
of  the  groans  and  weeping,  so  will  the  good  opinion  of  the  public 
be.  The  lamentations  over,  the  mourner  retires,  doffs  the  mourn- 
ing robes,  and  eats  his  food.  At  the  new  and  the  full  moon,  all 
the  relatives  are  invited  and  expected  to  assist  at  the  ceremonies. 
These  practices  continue  more  or  less  even  after  burial,  and  at 
intervals  during  several  years.  Often  a noble  will  go  out  to  weep 
and  kneel  at  the  tomb,  passing  a day,  and  even  a night,  in  this 
position.  In  some  instances,  mourners  have  built  a little  house 


278 


COREA. 


before  tlie  grave,  and  watched  there  for  years,  thus  winning  a 
high  reputation  for  filial  piety. 

Among  the  poor,  who  have  not  the  means  to  provide  a death- 
chamber  and  expensive  mourning,  the  coffin  is  kept  outside  their 
houses  covered  with  mats  until  the  time  of  sepulture. 

Though  cremation,  or  “ burying  in  the  fire,”  is  known  in 
Cho-sen,  the  most  usual  form  of  disposing  of  the  dead  is  by 
inhumation.  Children  are  wrapped  up  in  the  clothes  and  bed- 
ding in  which  they  die,  and  are  thus  buried.  As  unmarried  per- 
sons are  reckoned  as  children,  their  shroud  and  burial  are  the 
same.  With  the  married  and  adult,  the  process  is  more  costly, 
and  the  ceremonial  more  detailed  and  prolonged.  This,  which  is 
described  very  fully  in  Ross’  “Corea,”  and  with  -which  Hamel’s 
curt  notes  agree,  consists  of  minute  ceremonial  and  mourning 
among  the  living  and  the  washing,  combing,  nail-paring,  robing, 
and  laying  out  in  state  of  the  dead,  with  calling  of  the  spirits, 
and  with  screens,  lights,  and  offerings,  according  to  Confucian 
ritual.  In  many  interesting  features,  the  most  ancient  rites  of 
China  have  survived  in  the  peninsula  after  they  have  become 
obsolete  in  the  former  country.  The  very  old  tombs  opened, 
and  the  painted  coffins,  coated  with  many  layers  of  silicious 
paint,  dug  up  near  Shanghai  recently,  are  much  like  those  of  the 
Coreans. 

The  coffin,  which  fits  the  body,  is  made  air-tight  with  wax, 
resin,  or  varnish,  and  is  borne  on  a bier  to  the  grave  by  men  who 
make  this  their  regular  business.  Often  there  are  two  coffins,  one 
inside  the  other.  Sons  follow  the  body  of  their  father  on  foot, 
relatives  ride  in  palanquins  or  on  horseback.  Prominent  at  the 
head  of  the  procession  is  the  red  standard  containing  the  titles 
and  honors  of  the  deceased.  Tliis  banner,  or  sa-jen,  has  two  points 
on  it  to  frighten  away  the  spirits,  and  at  the  funeral  of  a high 
officer,  a man  wears  a hideous  mask  for  the  same  purpose.  When 
there  are  no  titles,  only  the  name  of  the  deceased  is  inscribed 
upon  the  banner. 

The  selection  of  a proper  site  for  a tomb  is  a matter  of  pro- 
found solicitude,  time,  and  money  ; for  the  geomancers  must  be 
consulted  with  a fee.  The  pung-sui  superstition  requires  for  the 
comfort  of  both  living  and  dead  that  the  right  site  should  be 
chosen.  Judging  from  the  number  of  times  the  word  “moun- 
tain ” enters  into  terms  relating  to  burial,  most  interments  are 
on  the  hillsides.  If  these  are  not  done  properly,  trouble  will 


MOURNING  AND  BURIAL. 


279 


arise,  and  the  bones  must  then  be  dug  up,  collected,  and  re- 
buried, often  at  heavy  expense.  Thousands  of  professional  cheats 
and  self-duped  people  live  by  working  upon  the  feelings  of  the 
bereaved  through  this  superstition. 

The  tombs  of  the  poor  consist  only  of  the  grave  and  a low 
mound  of  earth.  These  mounds,  subjected  to  the  forces  of  na- 
ture, and  often  trampled  upon  by  cattle,  disappear  after  the  lapse 
of  a few  years,  and  oblivion  settles  over  the  spot. 

With  the  richer  class  monuments  are  of  stone,  sometimes 
neat  or  even  imposing,  sometimes  grotesque.  Some,  as  the  pi- 
popi,  are  shaped  like  a house  or  miniature  temple  ; or,  two  stones, 
cut  in  the  form  of  a ram  and  a horse  respectively,  are  placed 
before  the  sepulchre.  The  man-tu,  “gazing  headstone,”  consists 
of  two  monoliths  or  columns  of  masonry,  flanking  the  tomb 
on  either  side,  so  that  the  soul  of  the  dead,  changed  into  a bird, 
may  repose  peacefully.  In  the  graveyards  are  many  tombs  paved 
with  granite  slabs  around  the  temple  model,  but  for  the  most 
part  a Corean  cemetery  is  filled  with  little  obelisks,  or  tall,  square 
columns,  either  pointed  at  the  top  or  surmounted  with  the 
effigy  of  a human  head,  or  a rudely  sculptured  stone  image, 
which  strangely  reminds  a foreigner  of  “ patience  on  a monu- 
ment, smiling  at  grief.”  This  apparition  of  a human  head 
rising  above  the  tall  grass  of  the  burial-ground  may  be  the 
original  of  Japanese  pictures  of  the  ghosts  and  spirits  which  seem 
to  rise  dark  and  windblown  out  of  the  wet  grass.  Often  the 
carving  in  Corean  grave-yards  is  so  rude  as  to  be  almost  indis- 
tinguishable. 

Mourning  is  of  many  degrees  and  lengths,  and  is  betokened 
by  dress,  abstinence  from  food  and  business,  visits  to  the  tomb, 
offerings,  tablets,  and  many  visible  indications,  detailed  even  to 
absurdity.  Pure,  or  nearly  pure  white  is  the  mourning  color,  as 
a contrast  to  red,  the  color  of  rejoicing.  Even  the  rivets  of  the 
fan,  the  strings  on  the  shoes,  and  the  carrying  of  a staff  in  addi- 
tion to  the  mourning-hat,  betoken  the  uniform  of  woe. 

When  noblemen  don  the  peaked  hat,  which  covers  the  face  as 
well  as  the  head,  they  are  as  dead  to  the  world — not  to  be  spoken 
to,  molested,  or  even  arrested  if  charged  with  crime.  This  Corean 
mourning  hat  proved  “the  helmet  of  salvation”  to  Christians,  and 
explains  the  safety  of  the  French  missionaries  who  lived  so  long 
in  disguise,  unharmed  in  the  country  where  the  police  were  as 
lynxes  and  hounds  ever  on  their  t.raek.  The  Jesuits  were  not 


280 


COREA. 


slow  to  see  the  wonderful  shelter  promised  for  them,  and  availed 
themselves  of  it  at  once  and  always. 

The  royal  sepulchres  within  the  peninsula  have  attracted  more 
than  one  unlawful  descent  upon  the  shores  of  Cho-sen.  The 
various  dynasties  of  sovereigns  during  the  epoch  of  the  Three 
Kingdoms  in  the  old  capitals  of  these  states,  the  royal  lines  of 
Kokorai  at  Ping-an,  of  Korai  at  Sunto,  and  of  the  ruling  house  at 
Seoul,  have  made  Corea  during  her  two  thousand  years  of  history 
rich  in  royal  tombs.  These  are  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
and  those  which  are  known  are  under  the  care  of  the  government. 

Are  these  mausoleums  filled  with  gold  or  jewels?  Foreign 
grave-robbers  have  believed  so,  and  shown  their  faith  by  their 
works,  as  we  shall  see.  French  priests  in  the  country  have  said 
so.  The  ancient  Chinese  narratives  descriptive  of  the  customs  of 
the  Fuyu  people,  confirm  the  general  impression.  Without  having 
the  facts  at  hand  to  demonstrate  what  eager  foreigners  have 
believed,  we  know  that  vast  treasures  have  been  spent  upon 
the  decoration  of  the  royal  sepulchres,  and  the  erection  of  me- 
morial buildings  over  them,  and  that  the  fear  of  their  violation 
by  foreign  or  native  outlaws  has  been  for  centuries  ever  be- 
fore the  Corean  people.  That  these  fears  have  too  often  been 
justified,  we  shall  find  when  we  read  of  that  memorable  year, 
a.d.  1866.  The  profuse  vocabulary  of  terms  relating  to  burial, 
mourning,  and  memorial  tablets  in  Corea  show  their  intense 
loyalty  to  the  Confucian  doctrines,  the  power  of  superstition, 
and  the  shocking  waste  of  the  resources  of  the  living  upon  the 
dead. 

The  voluble  Corean  envoys  when  in  Tokio,  visited  the  Naval 
College,  and  on  learning  that  in  certain  emergencies  the  students 
from  distant  provinces  were  not  allowed  to  go  home  to  attend  the 
funeral  of  their  parents,  nor  to  absent  themselves  from  duty  on 
account  of  mourning,  were  amazed  beyond  measure,  and  for  a 
few  moments  literally  speechless  from  surprise.  It  is  hard  for  a 
Corean  to  understand  the  sayings  of  Jesus  to  the  disciple  who 
asked,  “Lord,  suffer  me  first  to  go  and  bury  my  father,”  and 
“Let  the  dead  bury  their  dead.” 

From  the  view-point  of  political  economy,  this  lavish  expense 
of  time,  energy,  money,  and  intellect  upon  corpses  and  super- 
stition is  beneficial.  Without  knowing  of  Malthus  or  his  theories, 
the  Cho-senese  have  hit  upon  a capital  method  of  limiting  popu- 
lation, and  keeping  the  country  in  a state  of  chronic  poverty. 


MOURNING  AND  BURIAL. 


281 


The  question  has  been  asked  the  winter,  “ How  can  a people,  pent 
in  a little  mountainous  peninsula  like  Corea,  exist  for  centuries 
without  overpopulating  their  territory? ” 

Wars,  famine,  pestilence,  ordinary  poverty  answer  the  question 
in  part.  The  absurd  and  rigorous  rules  of  mourning,  requiring 
frightful  expense,  postponement  of  maniage  to  young  people — 
who  even  when  betrothed  must  mourn  three  years  for  parents  and 
grandparents,  actual  and  expected,  the  impoverishing  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  the  frequent  hindrances  to  maniage  at  the  proper  season, 
serve  to  keep  down  population.  This  fact  is  an  often  chosen  sub- 
ject for  native  anecdotes  and  romances.  The  vexations  and  delays 
often  caused  by  the  long  periods  of  idle  mourning  required  by 
etiquette,  are  well  illustrated  by  the  following  story,  from  the 
“ Grammaire  Coreene,”  which  is  intended  to  show  the  sympathy 
of  the  king  Cheng-chong  (1776  to  1800)  with  his  subjects.  It  is 
entitled  “A  Trait  of  Royal  Solicitude.” 

It  was  about  New  Year’s  that  Cheng-chong  walked  about  here 
and  there  within  the  palace  enclosure.  Having  come  to  the  place 
reserved  for  the  candidates  at  the  literary  examinations,  he  looked 
through  a crack  in  the  gate.  The  competitors  had  nearly  all  gone 
away  to  spend  the  New  Year  holidays  at  home,  and  there  re- 
mained only  two  of  them,  who  were  talking  together. 

“Well,  all  the  others  have  gone  off  to  spend  New  Year’s  at 
home  ; isn’t  it  deplorable  that  we  two,  having  no  place  to  go  to, 
must  be  nailed  here?” 

“Yes,  truly,”  said  the  other;  “you  have  no  longer  either  wife, 
children,  or  house.  How  is  this  ? ” 

“ Listen  to  my  story,”  said  the  first  man.  “ My  parents, 
thinking  of  my  marriage,  had  arranged  my  betrothal,  but  some 
time  before  the  preparations  were  concluded,  my  future  grand- 
father died,  and  it  became  necessary  to  wait  three  years.  Hardly 
had  I put  off  mourning,  when  I was  called  on  to  lament  the  death 
of  my  poor  father.  I was  now  compelled  to  wait  still  three  years. 
These  three  years  finished,  behold  my  mother-in-law  who  was  to 
be  died,  and  three  years  passed  away.  Finally,  I had  the  misfor- 
tune to  lose  my  poor  mother,  which  required  me  to  wait  again 
three  years.  And  so,  three  times  four — a dozen  years — have 
elapsed,  during  which  we  have  waited  the  one  for  the  other.  By 
this  time  she,  who  was  to  be  my  wife,  fell  ill.  As  she  was  upon 
the  point  of  death,  I went  to  make  her  a visit.  My  intended 
brother-in-law  came  to  see  me,  found  me,  and  said,  ‘ Although 


282 


COREA. 


the  ceremonies  of  marriage  have  not  been  made,  they  may  cer- 
tainly consider  you  as  married,  therefore  come  and  see  her.’ 
Upon  his  invitation  I entered  her  house,  but  we  had  hardly  blown 
a puff  of  smoke,  one  before  the  other,  than  she  died. 

“Seeing  this,  I have  no  more  wished  even  to  dream  at  night. 


Thatched  House  near  Seoul.  (From  a photograph,  1876.) 


I am  not  yet  married.  You  may  understand,  then,  why  I have 
neither  wife,  children,  nor  home.” 

In  his  turn  the  other  thus  spoke  : “My  house  was  extremely 
poor.  Our  diet  looked  like  fasting.  "We  had  no  means  of  freeing 
ourselves  from  embarrassment.  When  the  day  of  the  examination 
came  I presented  myself.  During  my  absence  my  wife  contrived 


MOURNING  AND  BURIAL. 


283 


in  such  a manner,  that  putting  in  the  brazier  a farthing’s  worth 
of  charcoal,  she  set  a handful  of  rice  to  cook  in  a skillet,  and  set- 
tled herself  to  wait  for  me.  She  served  this  to  me  every  time  I 
came  back.  But  I never  obtained  a degree.  The  day  on  which 
I was  at  last  received  as  a bachelor  of  arts,  on  returning  after 
examination,  I found  that  she  had  as  before  lighted  the  charcoal, 
put  to  boil  a dish  of  soup,  and  seating  herself  before  the  fire,  she 
waited.  In  this  position  she  was  dead. 

“ At  sight  of  this  my  grief  was  without  bounds.  Having  no 
desire  to  contract  a new  union,  I have  never  re-married.” 

Hearing  these  narratives,  Cheng-chong  was  touched  with  pity. 
Entering  the  palace,  seating  himself  upon  the  throne,  and  having 
had  the  two  scholars  brought  in,  he  said  to  them  : 

“ All  the  other  scholars  have  gone  to  their  homes  to  spend 
New  Year’s.  Why  have  not  you  two  gone  also?”  They  an- 
swered, “Your  servants  having  no  house  to  go  to,  remained 
here.” 

“What  does  that  mean?”  said  Cheng-chong.  “The  fowls 
and  the  dogs,  oxen  and  horses  have  shelter.  The  birds  have  also 
a hole  to  build  their  nests  in.  Can  it  be  that  men  have  no  dwell- 
ing? There  should  be  a reason  for  this.  Speak  plainly.”  One 
of  the  scholars  answered  : “ Your  servant’s  affairs  are  so-and-so. 
I have  come  even  till  now  without  re-marriage.  It  is  because  I 
have  neither  wife,  child,  nor  family.” 

The  story  being  exactly  like  that  which  he  had  heard  before, 
the  king  cried  out,  “ Too  bad ! ” 

Then  addressing  the  other,  he  put  this  question  : “ And  you, 
how  is  it  that  you  are  reduced  to  this  condition  ?”  He  answered  . 
“ My  story  is  almost  the  same.” 

“ What  do  you  wish  ? Speak  ! ” replied  the  king. 

“ The  circumstances  being  such  and  such,  I am  at  this  mo- 
ment without  wife  and  without  food.  That  is  my  condition.” 

As  there  was  in  all  this  nothing  different  from  the  preceding, 
the  king,  struck  with  compassion,  bestowed  upon  them  imme- 
diately lucrative  offices. 

If  he  had  not  examined  for  himself,  how  could  he  have  been 
able  to  know  such  unfortunate  men,  and  procure  for  them  so 
happy  a position  in  the  world?  In  truth,  the  goodness  of  his 
Majesty  Cheng-chong  has  become  celebrated. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 


OUT-DOOR  LIFE.— CHARACTERS  AND  EMPLOYMENTS. 

Six  public  roads  of  the  first  class  traverse  the  peninsula  and 
centre  at  the  capital.  They  are  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  in 
width,  with  ditches  at  the  side  for  drainage.  One  of  these  begins 
near  the  ocean,  in  Chulla  Do,  and  in  general  follows  the  shores  of 
the  Yellow  Sea  through  three  provinces  to  Tong-chin  opposite 
Kang-wa  Island,  and  enters  the  capital  by  branch  roads.  Another 
highway  passes  through  the  interior  of  the  three  provinces  bor- 
dering the  Yellow  Sea,  and  enters  Seoul  by  the  southern  gate. 
Hamel  and  his  fellow-captives  journeyed  by  this  road.  The  road 
by  which  the  annual  embassy  reaches  Peking,  after  leaving  the 
capital,  passes  through  Sunto  and  Ping-an  and  Ai-chiu,  crosses  the 
Neutral  Strip,  and  enters  Manchuria  for  Peking  by  way  of  Muk- 
den. This  was  the  beaten  track  of  the  French  missionaries,  and 
the  shipwrecked  men  from  the  United  States  and  Japan,  and  is 
the  military  road  from  China.  It  is  well  described,  with  a good 
map,  in  Koei -Ling’s  “Journal  of  a Mission  into  Corea,”  which 
Mr.  F.  Scherzer  has  translated  for  us. 

From  Fusan  and  Tong-nai,  in  the  southeast,  Seoul  is  reached 
by  no  less  than  three  roads.  One  strikes  westward  through 
Chung-chong,  and  joins  the  main  road  coming  up  from  the  south. 
Another  following  the  Nak-tong  River  basin,  crosses  the  moun- 
tains to  Chulla,  and  enters  Seoul  by  the  south  gate.  Eight  river 
crossings  must  be  made  by  this  road,  over  which  Konishi  marched 
in  1593.  The  third  route  takes  a more  northerly  trend,  follows  the 
sea-coast  to  Urusan,  and  passing  through  Kion-chiu,  enters  the 
capital  by  the  east  gate. 

The  fifth  great  road  issuing  from  the  north  gate  of  the  capital 
passes  into  Kang-wen,  and  thence  upward  to  Gensan,  and  to  the 
frontiers  at  the  Tumen  River. 

The  roads  of  the  second  class  are  eight  or  nine  feet  wide,  and 
without  side  ditches.  They  ramify  through  all  the  provinces,  but 


OUT-DOOR  LIFE.— CHARACTERS  AND  EMPLOYMENTS.  2Sd 


are  especially  numerous  in  the  five  southern.  The  three  northern 
circuits,  owing  to  their  mountainous  character,  are  but  poorly 
furnished  with  highways,  and  these  usually  follow  the  rivers. 

The  third  class  roads,  which  are  nothing  more  than  bridle- 
paths, or  trails,  connect  the  villages. 

The  hilly  nature  of  the  country,  together  with  the  Asiatic 
apathy  to  bestowing  much  care  on  the  public  highways,  makes 
travelling  difficult.  Inundations  are  frequent,  though  the  water 
subsides  quickly.  Hence  in  summer  the  road-beds  are  dust,  and 
in  winter  a slough  of  mud.  Macadamized,  or  paved  roads,  are 
hardly  known,  except  for  short  lengths.  Few  of  the  wide  rivers 
are  bridged,  which  necessitates  frequent  fordings  and  ferriages. 
Stone  bridges,  built  -with  arches,  are  sometimes  seen  over  streams 
not  usually  inundated,  but  few  of  the  wooden  bridges  are  over 
one  hundred  and  eighty  feet  long. 

In  one  respect  the  roads  are  well  attended  to.  The  distances 
are  well  marked.  At  every  ri  is  a small,  and  at  every  three  ri  a 
large  mound,  surmounted  with  an  inscribed  post  or  “ mile-stone,” 
called  chang-sung.  They  are  two,  six,  and  even  ten  feet  in  length. 

In  ancient  times,  it  is  said,  there  was  a man  named  Chang- 
sung,  who  killed  his  servant  and  wife.  "Wlien  punished,  his  head 
was  placed  on  a small  mound.  Legend  even  declares  that  it  wras 
successively  exposed  on  all  the  distance  mounds  in  the  kingdom. 
This  is  said  to  be  the  origin  of  the  bournes  or  distance-mounds, 
which  suggests,  as  Mr.  Adams  has  shown,  the  termini  of  the 
Romans.  When  of  stone,  they  are  called  pio-sek,  but  they  are 
often  of  wood,  rudely  carved  or  hacked  out  of  a whole  tree  by  an 
axe  into  the  exaggerated  form  of  a man,  and  are  of  a ludicrous 
or  absurd  appearance.  The  face  is  meant  to  be  that  of  the  mur- 
derer Chang-sung.  The  author  of  “ A Forbidden  Land  ” mistook 
these  for  “ village  idols,”  and  was  surprised  to  find  the  boys  in 
some  cases  sacrilegiously  kicking  about  some  that  had  rotted 
down  or  fallen.  The  “ gods  of  the  roads  ” may,  however,  have 
their  effiges,  which  are  worshipped  or  profaned. 

All  distances  in  every  direction  are  measured  from  the  front 
gate  of  the  magistrates’  offices,  the  standard  of  all  being  the  palace 
at  Seoul.  Not  the  least  interesting  sights  to  the  traveller  are  the 
memorial  stones  set  up  and  inscribed  with  a view  to  commemo- 
rate local  or  national  worthies,  or  the  events  of  war,  famine,  or 
philanthropy.  The  Coreans  are  “idolaters  of  letters,”  and  the 
erection  of  memorial  tablets  or  columns  occasionally  becomes  a 


286 


COREA. 


passion.  Sometimes  the  inscriptions  are  the  means  of  stirring  up 
patriotism,  as  the  following  inscription  shows.  It  was  graven  on 
a stone  in  front  of  a castle  erected  after  the  French  and  American 
expeditions,  and  was  copied  by  a Japanese  correspondent. 

“It  is  nothing  else  than  selling  the  kingdom  into  slavery,  in 
order  to  avoid  wrar,  to  make  peace  without  fighting  when  any 
Western  nation  comes  to  attack  it ; such  should  never  be  done 
even  by  our  descendants  thousands  of  years  hence.” 

In  this  country,  in  which  sumptuary  laws  prevent  the  humbler 
classes  from  travelling  on  horseback,  and  where  wagons  and 
steam-roads  are  unknown,  the  roads  are  lively  with  numerous 
foot-passengers.  Palanquins  are  used  by  the  better  classes  and 
the  wealthy.  The  rambling  life  of  many  of  the  people,  the  goodly 
numbers  of  that  character  not  unknown  in  Christendom — the 
tramp — the  necessities  of  trade,  literary  examinations,  government 
service,  and  holy  pilgrimages,  prevent  too  many  weeds  from  grow- 
ing in  the  highways.  In  travelling  over  the  high  roads  one  meets 
a variety  of  characters  that  would  satisfy  a Corean  Dickens,  or 
the  Japanese  author  who  wrote  the  Tokaidd  Hizakurig’e  (Leg-liair, 
i.e.,  “Shanks’  mare,”  on  the  East  Sea  Road).  Bands  of  students 
on  their  way  to  the  capital  or  provincial  literary  examinations, 
some  roystei’ing  youths  in  the  full  flow  of  spirits,  are  hastening 
on,  others,  gray-headed  and  solemn,  are  wending  their  way  to  fail 
for  the  twentieth  time.  Pompous  functionaries  in  umbrella-hats, 
on  horseback,  before  whom  ordinary  folks  dismount  or  kneel 
or  bowT,  brush  past  'with  noisy  attendants.  Pilgrims  in  pious  garb 
are  on  their  way  to  some  holy  mountain  or  famous  shrine,  men  to 
pray  for  success  in  business,  women  to  beseech  the  gods  for  off- 
spring. Here  hobbles  along  the  lame  or  rheumatic,  or  the  pale- 
faced  invalid  is  borne  to  the  hot  springs.  Here  is  a party  of 
pic-nickers,  or  poets  intent  on  the  joys  of  drink,  verse,  and  scenery. 
Here  a troop  of  strolling  players  or  knot  of  masqueraders  are  ip 
peripatetic  quest  of  a livelihood,  toiling  fearfully  hard  in  order  t* 
escape  settled  industry.  Nobles  in  mourning  pass  with  their 
faces  invisible.  Postal  slaves,  women  doing  the  work  of  express 
agents  in  forwarding  parcels,  pass  the  merchant  with  his  loaded 
pack-horses  returning  from  Sunto,  or  going  to  Gensan.  There  a 
packman  is  doing  horse’s  work  in  transportation.  Here  an  ox 
laden  with  bnishwood  is  led  by  a woman.  Beggars,  corpses, 
kang-si,  or  men  dead  of  hunger  in  times  of  famine,  make  the 
lights  and  shadows  of  life  on  the  road. 


OUT-DOOR  LIFE. -CHARACTERS  AND  EMPLOYMENTS.  287 


There  are  other  methods  of  travel  besides  those  of  horseback, 
on  foot,  and  sedan  chair,  for  oxen  are  often  straddled  by  the 
men,  and  poor  women  travel  on  an  ox,  in  a sort  of  improvised 
palanquin  having  four  poles  recurved  to  centre  and  covered  with 
robe  or  cloak.  In  winter,  among  the  mountains  not  only  in  the 
north,  but  even  in  Chulla,  the  people  go  on  racquettes  or  snow- 
shoes.  These  are  in  shape  like  a battledore,  and  are  several  feet 
long.  At  regular  distances  are  yek,  or  relays  or  offices,  at  which 
sit  clerks  or  managers  under  government  auspices,  with  hered- 
itary slaves  or  serfs,  porters,  gnides,  mail-couriers,  and  pack- 
horses.  These  await  the  service  of  the  traveller,  especially  of 
official  couriers,  the  finer  beasts  being  reserved  for  journeying 
dignitaries. 

All  these  throughout  a certain  district,  of  which  there  are  sev- 
eral in  each  province,  are  under  the  direction  of  the  Tsal-peng,  or 
Director  of  Posts.  Kiung-sang,  the  province  having  the  greatest 
number  of  roads,  has  also  the  best  equipment  in  the  way  of  post- 
officers, relays,  and  horses.  The  following  table  from  Dallet  shows 
the  equipment  of  the  eight  provinces  : 


Post  Superin- 
tendents. 

Relays. 

Horses. 

Kiung-Kei 

6 

47 

449 

Chung-chong 

5 

62 

761 

Chulla 

6 

53 

506 

Kiung-sang 

11 

115 

1,700 

Kang-wen 

4 

78 

447 

Wang  hei 

3 

28 

396 

Ham-kiung 

3 

58 

792 

Ping-an 

2 

30 

311 

40 

471 

5,362 

Yet  with  this  provision  for  locomotion,  the  country  is  very 
deficient  in  houses  for  public  accommodation.  Inns  are  to  be 
found  only  along  the  great  highways,  and  but  rarely  along  the 
smaller  or  sequestered  roads.  This  want  arises,  perhaps,  not  so 
much  from  the  poverty  of  the  people,  as  from  the  fact  that  their 
proverbial  hospitality  does  away  with  the  necessity  of  numerous 
inns.  The  Coreans  have  been  so  often  represented,  or  rather  mis- 


288 


COREA. 


represented,  as  inhospitable,  fierce,  and  rude  by  foreigners,  that 
to  give  an  inside  view  of  them  as  seen  through  information  gath- 
ered from  the  French  missionaries  in  Corea  is  a pleasant  task. 
From  them  we  may  learn  how  much  the  white-coated  peninsulars 
are  like  their  cousins,  the  Japanese,  and  that  human  nature  in 
good  average  quantity  and  quality  dwells  under  the  big  hats  of 
the  Coreans.  The  traveller  usually  takes  his  provisions  along  with 
him,  but  he  need  not  eat  it  out-doors.  As  he  sits  along  the  way- 
side,  he  will  be  invited  into  some  house  to  warm  his  food.  When 
obliged  to  go  some  distance  among  the  mountains  to  cut  wood  or 
make  charcoal,  a man  is  sure  to  find  a hut  in  which  he  can  lodge. 
He  has  only  to  bring  his  rice.  The  villagers  will  cook  it  for  him, 
after  adding  the  necessary  pickles  or  sauces.  Even  the  oxen, 
except  during  the  busy  season,  are  easily  obtained  on  loan. 

The  great  virtue  of  the  Coreans  is  their  innate  respect  for  and 
* daily  practice  of  the  laws  of  human  brotherhood.  Mutual  assist- 
ance and  generous  hospitality  among  themselves  are  distinctive 
national  traits.  In  all  the  important  events  of  life,  such  as  mar- 
riages and  funerals,  each  one  makes  it  his  duty  to  aid  the  family 
most  directly  interested.  One  will  charge  himself  with  the  duty 
of  making  purchases  ; others  with  arranging  the  ceremonies.  The 
poor,  who  can  give  nothing,  carry  messages  to  friends  and  rela- 
tives in  the  near  or  remote  villages,  passing  day  and  night  on  foot 
and  giving  their  labors  gratuitously.  To  them,  the  event  is  not  a 
mere  personal  matter,  but  an  affair  of  public  interest. 

When  fire,  flood,  or  other  accident  destroys  the  house  of  one 
of  their  number,  neighbors  make  it  a duty  to  lend  a hand  to  re- 
build. One  brings  stone,  another  wood,  another  straw.  Each,  in 
addition  to  his  gifts  in  material,  devotes  two  or  three  days’  work 
gratuitously.  A stranger,  coming  into  a village,  is  always  assisted 
to  build  a dwelling. 

Hospitality  is  considered  as  one  of  the  most  sacred  duties.  It 
would  be  a grave  and  shameful  thing  to  refuse  a portion  of  one’s 
meal  with  any  person,  known  or  unknown,  who  presents  himself 
at  eating-time.  Even  the  poor  laborers,  who  take  their  noon-meal 
at  the  side  of  the  roads,  are  often  seen  sharing  their  frugal  nour- 
ishment with  the  passer-by.  Usually  at  a feast,  the  neighbors 
consider  themselves  invited  by  right  and  custom.  The  poor  man 
whose  duty  calls  him  to  make  a journey  to  a distant  place  does 
not  need  to  make  elaborate  preparatons.  His  stick,  his  pipe, 
some  clothes  in  a packet  hung  from  his  shoulder,  some  cash  in 


OUT-DOOR  LIFE. -CHARACTERS  AND  EMPLOYMENTS.  289 


his  purse,  if  he  has  one,  and  his  outfit  is  complete.  At  night, 
instead  of  going  to  a hotel  with  its  attendant  expense,  he  enters 
some  house,  whose  exterior  room  is  open  to  any  comer.  There  he 
is  sure  to  find  food  and  lodging  for  the  night.  Rice  will  be  shared 
with  the  stranger,  and,  at  bed-time,  a corner  of  the  floor-mat  will 
serve  for  a bed,  while  he  may  rest  his  head  on  a foot-length  of  the 
long  log  of  wood  against  the  wall,  which  serves  as  a pillow.  Even 
should  he  delay  his  journey  for  a day  or  two,  little  or  nothing  to 
his  discredit  will  be  harbored  by  his  hosts.  In  Corea,  the  old 
proverb  concerning  fish  and  company  after  three  days  does  not 
seem  to  hold  good. 

As  may  be  imagined,  such  a system  is  prolific  in  breeding  beg- 
gars, tramps,  blackmailers,  and  lazy  louts,  who  “ sponge  ” upon 
the  benevolently  disposed.  Rich  families  are  often  bored  by  these 
self-invited  parasites,  who  eat  with  unblushing  cheek  at  their 
tables  for  weeks  at  a time.  They  do  not  even  disdain — nay,  they 
often  clamor  for — clothing  as  well.  To  refuse  would  only  result 
in  bringing  down  calumny  and  injury.  Peddlers,  strolling  play- 
ers, astrologers,  etc.,  likewise  avail  themselves  of  the  opportu- 
nities, and  act  as  plundering  harpies.  Often  whole  bands  go 
round  quartering  themselves  on  the  villages,  and  sometimes  the 
government  is  called  upon  to  interpose  its  authority  and  protect 
the  people. 

Corea  is  full  of  Micawbers,  men  who  are  as  prodigal  as  avari- 
cious, who  when  they  have  plenty  of  money,  scatter  it  quickly. 
When  flush  they  care  only  to  live  in  style,  to  treat  their  friends,  to 
satisfy  their  caprices.  When  poverty  comes,  they  take  it  without 
complaint,  and  wait  till  the  wheel  of  fortune  turns  again  to  give 
them  better  days.  When  by  any  process  they  have  made  some 
gain  by  finding  a root  of  ginseng,  a bit  of  gold  ore,  a vein  of 
crystal,  what  matters  it  ? Let  the  future  take  care  of  itself.  Hence 
it  happens  that  the  roads  are  full  of  men  seeking  some  stroke  of 
luck,  hoping  to  discover  at  a distance  what  they  could  not  find  at 
home,  to  light  upon  some  treasure  not  yet  dug  up  or  to  invent 
some  new  means  of  making  money.  People  forever  waiting  for 
something  to  turn  up  emigrate  from  one  village  to  another,  stop  a 
year  or  two,  and  then  tramp  on,  seeking  better  luck,  but  usually 
finding  worse. 

Strolling  companies  of  mountebanks,  players  and  musicians,  in 
numbers  of  five,  six,  or  more,  abound  in  Cho-sen.  They  wander 
up  and  down  through  the  eight  circuits,  and,  in  spring  and  sum- 
19 


290 


COREA. 


mer,  earn  a precarious  and  vagabond  livelihood.  Their  reputation 
among  the  villagers  is  none  of  the  best,  being  about  on  a par  with 
that  of  the  gypsies,  or  certain  gangs  of  railroad  surveyors  of  our 
own  country.  They  often  levy  a sort  of  blackmail  upon  the  peo- 
ple. They  are  jugglers,  acrobats,  magicians,  marionette  players, 
and  performers  on  musical  instruments.  Some  of  them  display 
an  astonishing  amount  of  cleverness  and  sleight  of  hand  in  their 
feats.  In  the  villages  crowds  of  gaping  urchins  are  their  chief 
spectators,  but  in  the  large  cities  they  are  invited  to  private 
houses  to  give  exhibitions  and  are  paid  for  it.  When  about  to 
begin  a performance,  they  secure  attention  by  whistling  on  the 
nail  of  their  little  finger.  On  the  occasion  of  the  anniversary  of 
some  happy  event,  a public  fete  day,  a marriage  or  a social  com- 
pany, the  lack  of  what  we  call  society — that  is,  social  relations 
between  gentlemen  and  ladies — is  made  up,  and  amusement  is 
furnished  by  these  players,  engaged  for  an  evening  or  two.  The 
guests  fully  appreciate  the  “hired  music,”  and  “best  talent” 
thus  secured  for  a variety  entertainment.  The  company  of  one 
class  of  these  “men  of  society,”  or  pang-tang,  a kind  of  “profes- 
sional diner-out,”  is  so  desirable  that  several  are  taken  along  by 
the  ambassadors  to  China  to  amuse  them  on  their  long  and  tedi- 
ous journey,  especially  at  nights.  The  chang-pu  are  character- 
comedians,  who  serenade  the  baccalaureates  that  have  passed  suc- 
cessfully the  government,  examinations.  They  play  the  flute  and 
other  instruments  of  music,  forming  the  escort  which  accompanies 
the  graduate  on  his  visits  to  relatives  and  officials.  A band  of 
performers  is  always  attached  to  the  suite  of  ambassadors  to 
China  and  Japan,  or  when  visiting  a foreign  vessel. 

A character  common  to  Corea  and  Japan  is  the  singing-girl, 
w'ho  is  also  a great  aid  in  making  life  endurable  to  the  better 
class  of  Coreans,  whose  chief  business  it  is  to  kill  time.  The 
singing-girl  is  the  one  poem  and  picture  in  the  street  life  of  the 
humbler  classes,  whose  poverty  can  rarely,  if  ever,  allow  them  to 
purchase  her  society  or  enjoy  her  charms  and  accomplishments. 
Socially,  her  rank  is  low,  very  low.  She  is  herself  the  child  of 
poverty  and  toil.  Her  parents  are  poor  people,  who  gladly  give 
up  their  daughter,  if  of  pretty  face  and  form,  to  a life  of  doubtful 
morals,  in  order  that  she  may  thereby  earn  her  own  support  and 
assist  her  parents.  She  herself  gladly  leaves  the  drudgery  of  the 
kitchen,  and  the  abject  meanness  of  the  hovel,  to  shine  in  the 
palace  and  the  mansion.  Her  dress  is  of  finest  fabric,  her  luxu- 


OUT-DOOR  LIFE.— CHARACTERS  AND  EMPLOYMENTS.  291 


riant  black  hair  is  bound  with  skill  and  grace,  her  skin  is  whit- 
ened by  artificial  cosmetics  as  far  as  possible,  and  with  powder, 
paint,  and  pomatum,  she  spends  much  of  her  life  before  the  look- 
ing-glass, studying  in  youth  to  increase,  and  in  womanhood  to 
retain,  her  charms.  At  home,  she  practises  her  music,  occasionally 
enlivening  a party  of  her  humble  neighbors.  As  she  passes  along 
the  street,  fresh,  clean,  bright,  and  pretty,  she  may  dispense  smiles 
for  popularity’s  sake,  but  her  errand  is  to  the  houses  of  the 
wealthy,  and  especially  to  the  official,  who,  for  his  own  amusement 
as  he  dines  alone,  or  for  his  friends  in  social  gathering,  may  employ 
from  two  to  twenty  geishas  (as  the  Japanese  call  them).  Most  Co- 
rean  cities  have  these  geishas,  who  form  themselves  into  a sort  of 
guild  for  fixed  prices,  etc.  Often  they  organize  complete  bands  or 
choirs,  by  which  music  may  be  had  in  mass  and  volume.  At  a feast 
they  serve  the  wine,  fill  and  pass  the  dishes,  and  preside  generally 
at  the  table.  When  eating  has  fairly  begun,  they  sing  (chant),  play 
the  guitar,  recite  in  pantomine  or  vocally,  and  furnish  general 
amusement.  The  dancing  is  usually  not  of  an  immoral  character. 
Such  a life,  however,  amid  feast  and  revel,  wine  and  flattery, 
makes  sad  wreck  of  many  of  them,  morally  and  physically.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  most  beautiful  girls  become  concubines  to 
wealthy  men  or  officials,  or  act  as  ladies  of  the  chamber  (brevet 
wives)  to  young  men  and  widowers.  Not  a few  join  the  business 
of  prostitutes  with  that  of  musicians.  Nevertheless,  it  is  quite 
possible  for  a respectable  family  to  enjoy  a pleasant  and  harmless 
evening  by  the  aid  of  the  lively  geishas.  Of  course,  Seoul  is  the 
chief  headquarters  of  the  fairest  and  most  accomplished  geishas, 
who  are,  as  a class,  the  best  educated  of  their  sex  in  Corea. 

The  theatre,  proper,  does  not  seem  to  exist  in  Corea.  The 
substitute  and  nearest  approach  to  it  is  recitation  in  monologue  of 
certain  events  or  extracts  from  the  standard  or  popular  histories, 
a single  individual  representing  the  successive  roles.  The  his- 
trionic artist  pitches  his  tabernacle  of  four  posts  in  some  popular 
street  or  corner.  He  spreads  mats  for  a roof  or  shade  from  the 
sun  in  front,  and  for  a background  in  the  rear.  A platform,  and 
a box  to  squat  on,  with  a small  reading-desk,  and  a cup  of  gin- 
gery water  to  refresh  his  palate,  complete  his  outfit. 

A few  rough  benches  or  mats  constitute  all  the  accommodation 
for  the  audience.  A gaping  crowd  soon  collects  around  him,  his 
auditors  pull  out  their  pipes,  and  refreshment  venders  improve 
the  occasion  for  the  chance  sale  of  their  viands.  With  his  voice 


2 92 


COREA. 


trained  to  various  tones  and  to  polite  and  vulgar  forms  of  speech, 
he  will  hold  dialogues  and  conversations,  and  mimic  the  attitude 
and  gestures  of  various  characters.  The  trial  of  a criminal  before 
a magistrate,  the  bastinado,  a quarrel  between  husband  and  wife, 
scenes  from  high  life  and  low  life  will  be  in  turn  rendered.  He 
will  imitate  the  grave  tones  and  visage  of  the  magistrate,  the  pit- 
eous appeals,  the  cries  and  groans  and  contortions  of  the  victim 
under  torture,  the  angry  or  grumbling  voice  of  the  husband,  the 
shrill  falsetto  of  the  scolding  shrew  or  the  shower  of  tears  and  the 
piteous  appeals  of  the  wife.  Smiles,  frowns,  surprise,  sorrow,  and 
all  the  emotions  are  simulated,  and  the  accompaniment  of  voice 
is  kept  up  with  jokes,  puns,  bon-mots,  irony,  or  well-expressed 
pathos.  In  short,  the  reciter  is  a theatrical  stock  company,  and  a 
band  of  minstrels,  rolled  into  one  person.  For  the  use  of  begin- 
ners, and  the  mediocrity  of  the  profession,  there  are  a number  of 
“ jest-books,”  collections  of  jokes  and  anecdotes,  more  or  less 
threadbare,  and  of  varying  moral  quality,  from  which  speakers 
may  prime  for  the  occasion.  With  the  advanced  of  the  profession, 
however,  most  of  the  smart  sayings  are  original  and  off-hand. 
The  habituds  of  the  booths  have  their1  “ star  ” favorite,  as  theatre- 
goers with  us  go  into  raptures  over  their  actors.  Able  men  make 
a good  bring  at  the  business,  as  they  “ pass  round  the  hat  ” to 
take  up  a collection  in  the  audience.  This  usually  comes  at  the 
most  telbng  point  of  the  narrative,  when  the  interest  of  the 
hearers  is  roused  to  the  highest  pitch  (or  when  it  is  to  be  “ con- 
timred  in  our  next,”  as  the  flash  newspapers  say).  Sometimes  the 
speaker  will  not  go  on  till  the  collection  is  deemed  by  the  tyrant 
a sufficient  appreciation  of  his  talents.  In  addition  to  their  pubbc 
street  income,  the  best  of  them  are  often  invited  to  perform  in 
private  houses,  at  family  reunions,  social  parties,  and  as  a rule,  in 
visits  to  dignitaries  by  candidates  who  have  won  degrees. 

The  Corean  gamut,  differing  from  the  scale  used  in  European 
countries,  makes  a fearful  and  wonderful  difference  in  effect  upon 
our  ears.  Some  of  their  melodies  upon  the  flute  are  plaintive 
and  sweet,  but  most  of  their  music  is  distressing  to  the  ear  and 
desolating  to  the  air.  One  hearer  describes  their  choicest  pieces 
as  “ the  most  discordant  sounds  that  ever  were  emitted  under  the 
name  of  music  from  brass  tubes.”  Some  of  the  flute  music,  how- 
ever, is  very  sweet.  As  most  of  the  ancient  music  of  Japan  is  of 
Corean  origin,  one  can  get  a fair  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  sounds 
that  debght  a Corean  ear  from  the  music  of  the  imperial  band  of 


OUT-DOOR  LIFE.— CHARACTERS  AND  EMPLOYMENTS.  293 


Tokio,  which  plays  the  classical  scores.  Yet  it  is  evident  that  the 
modem  tunes  of  Seoul  are  not  melodious  to  Japanese  auditory 
nerves.  One  would  think  that,  as  the  mikado’s  subjects  “ hear 
themselves  as  others  hear  them”  when  Corean  musicians  play, 
they  would  be  delighted.  On  the  contrary,  Corean  music  seems 
to  horrify  and  afflict  the  Japanese  ear.  Evidently,  in  the  course 
of  centuries  the  musical  scales  of  the  two  countries,  originally 
identical,  have  altered  in  tone  and  interval.  Wan-ka  is  the  father 
of  Corean  music — though  the  mere  fact  that  he  belonged  to  an- 
tiquity would  secure  his  renown.  The  various  stringed  musical 
instruments  known  are  the  kemunko,  a kind  of  large  guitar  ; the 
kanyakko,  mandolin  ; the  ko-siul,  or  guitar  of  twenty-five  strings  ; 
and  the  five-stringed  harp  or  violin.  The  wind  instruments  comprise 
a whole  battery  of  flutes,  long  and  short  trumpets,  while  cymbals, 
drams,  and  other  objects  of  percussion  are  numerous.  Ambas- 
sadors and  other  high  officers  at  home,  and  when  on  duty  to 
foreign  countries,  are  accompanied  by  a band  of  musicians.  La- 
borers on  government  works  are  summoned  to  begin  and  end 
work  by  music,  but  the  full  effect  of  a musical  salvo  is  attained  at 
the  opening  and  closing  of  the  city  gates.  Then  the  sound  is 
most  distressing — or  most  captivating,  according  as  the  ears  are 
to  the  manner  born,  or  receive  their  first  experience  of  what 
tortures  the  air  may  be  made  to  vibrate. 

The  chief  out-door  manly  sport  in  Corea  is,  by  excellence,  that 
of  archery.  It  is  encouraged  by  the  government  for  the  national 
safety  in  war,  and  nobles  stimulate  their  retainers  to  excellence 
by  rewards.  Most  gentlemen  have  targets  and  arrow-walks  for 
practice  in  their  gardens.  At  regular  times  in  the  year  contests 
of  skill  are  held,  at  which  archers  of  reputation  compete,  the 
expense  and  prizes  being  paid  for  out  of  the  public  purse.  Hamel 
says  the  great  men’s  retainers  have  nothing  to  do  but  to  learn  to 
shoot.  The  grandees  rival  each  other  in  keeping  the  most  famous 
archers,  as  an  Englishman  might  his  fox-hounds  or  as  the  daimios 
of  Japan  formerly  vied  with  each  other  in  patronizing  the  fattest 
and  most  skilful  wrestlers.  Other  manly  sports  are  those  of 
boxing  and  fist-fights.  Young  men  practice  the  “manly  art”  in 
play  with  each  other,  and  at  times  champions  are  chosen  by  rival 
villages  and  a set-to  between  the  bruisers  is  the  result,  with  more 
or  less  of  broken  heads  and  pulpy  faces.  In  large  cities  the 
contestants  may  come  from  different  wards  of  the  same  city.  In 
Seoul,  usually  in  the  first  month,  there  are  some  lively  tussles 


C94 


COREA. 


between  picked  champions,  with  betting  and  cheering  of  the 
backers  of  either  party.  Often  these  trials  of  skill  degenerate  into 
a free  fight,  in  which  clubs  and  stones  are  used  freely ; cracked 
skulls  and  loss  of  life  are  common.  The  magistrates  do  not 
usually  interfere,  but  allow  the  frolic  to  spend  itself. 

Another  class  of  men  worthy  of  notice,  and  identified  with 
out-door  life,  are  the  sportsmen.  The  bird-hunters  never  shoot 
on  the  wing.  They  disguise  themselves  in  skins,  feathers,  straw, 
etc.,  and  lurk  in  some  coigne  of  vantage  to  bring  down  the  game 
that  comes  within  their  range.  The  skilled  fowler  understands 
perfectly  how  to  imitate  the  cries  of  the  various  birds,  particularly 
that  of  the  pheasant  calling  his  mate.  By  this  means  most  of  the 
female  pheasants  are  captured.  The  call  used  is  an  iron  whistle, 
shaped  like  the  apricot-stone,  and  simliar  to  that  used  by  the 
Japanese  hunters.  The  method  of  hunting  the  deer  is  as  follows : 
During  the  months  of  June  and  July  deer -horn  commands  a very 
high  price,  for  it  is  at  this  season  that  the  deer-horns  are  develop- 
ing, and  the  “spike-bucks”  are  special  prizes.  A party  of  three 
or  foui’  hunters  is  formed.  They  beat  up  the  mountain  sides 
during  several  days,  and,  at  night,  when  obliged  to  cease  for 
awhile,  they  have  a wonderful  instinct  for  detecting  the  trail  of 
the  game,  except  when  the  earth  is  too  dry.  Usually  they  come 
up  to  their  game  on  the  third  day,  which  they  bring  down  with  a 
gunshot.  The  horn  is  sold  to  the  native  physicians  or  is  exported 
to  China  and  Japan,  where  hartshorn  and  valuable  medicines  are 
concocted  from  it.  A successful  deer-hunt  usually  enables  a 
hunter  to  live  on  his  profits  for  a good  part  of  the  year,  and  in 
some  cases  individuals  make  small  fortunes.  Those  who  hunt 
bears  wait  for  the  occasion  when  the  mother  bear  leads  her  cubs 
to  the  seashore  to  feast  them  on  the  crabs.  Then  the  hunters 
bide  their  time  till  they  see  the  mother  lifting  up  the  heavy  rocks 
on  edge,  while  the  little  cubs  eat  the  crabs.  The  hunters  usually 
rush  forward  and  assault  the  bear,  which,  frightened,  lets  fall  the 
rock,  which  crushes  the  cub.  When  on  the  open  field  or  shore 
they  do  not  fire  at  the  she-bear,  unless  sure  of  killing  her.  For 
the  various  parts  of  the  animal  good  prices  await  the  hunter  who 
sells.  In  addition  to  the  proceeds  from  hide,  flesh,  fat,  and 
sinews,  the  liver  and  gall  of.  the  brute,  supposed  to  possess  great 
potency  in  medicine,  are  sold  for  their  weight  in  silver.  In 
another  chapter  we  have  written  of  the  tiger-hunters  and  theii 
noble  game. 


OUT-DOOR  LIFE.— CHARACTERS  AND  EMPLOYMENTS.  295 


Gambling  and  betting  are  fearfully  common  habits  in  Corea, 
and  kite-flying  gives  abundant  occasion  for  money  to  change 
hands.  The  two  months  of  the  winter,  during  which  the  north 
wind  blows,  is  “ kite  time.”  The  large  and  strong  kites  are  flown 
with  skill,  requiring  stout  cords  and  to  be  held  by  young  men. 
A large  crowd  usually  collects  to  witness  the  battle  of  the  kites, 
when  the  kites  are  put  through  various  evolutions  in  the  air,  by 
which  one  seeks  to  destroy,  tear,  or  saw  off  the  string  of  the  other. 

Resources  for  in-door  amusement  are  chiefly  in  the  form  of 
gossip,  story-telling,  smoking,  lounging,  and  games  of  hazard, 
such  as  chess,  checkers,  and  backgammon.  The  game  of  chess 
is  the  same  as  that  played  in  Japan  and  China.  Card-playing, 
though  interdicted  by  law,  is  habitual  among  the  common  people. 
The  nobles  look  upon  it  as  vulgar  amusement  beneath  their  dig- 
nity. The  people  play  secretly  or  at  night,  often  gambling  to  a 
ruinous  extent.  It  is  said  that  the  soldiers,  especially  those  on 
guard,  and  at  the  frontiers,  are  freely  allowed  to  play  cards,  as 
that  is  the  surest  way  to  keep  them  awake  and  alert  in  the  pres- 
ence of  enemies,  and  as  safeguards  against  night  attacks.  They 
shuffle  and  cut  the  cards  as  we  do.  Games  with  the  hands  and 
fingers,  similar  to  those  in  Japan,  are  also  well  known. 

In  pagan  lands,  where  a Sabbath,  or  anything  like  it,  is  utterly 
uknown  alike  to  the  weary  laborer,  the  wealthy,  and  the  men  of 
leisure,  some  compensation  is  afforded  by  the  national  and  relig- 
ious holidays.  These  in  Corea  consist  chiefly  of  the  festal  occa- 
sions observed  in  China,  the  feasts  appropriate  to  the  seasons, 
planting,  and  harvest,  the  Buddhist  saints’  anniversaries,  the 
king’s  birthday,  and  the  new  year. 

Among  the  poorer  classes  the  families  celebrate  the  birthday 
of  the  head  of  the  family  only,  but  among  the  noble  and  wealthy, 
each  member  of  the  family  is  honored  with  gifts  and  a festal  gath- 
ering of  friends.  There  are  certain  years  of  destiny  noticed  with 
extra  joy  and  congratulations,  but  the  chief  of  all  is  the  sixty-first 
year.  With  us,  the  days  of  man  are  three  score  years  and  ten,  but 
in  the  hermit  kingdom  the  limit  of  life  is  three  score  years  and 
one,  and  the  reason  is  this : The  Coreans  divide  time  according  to 
the  Chinese  cycle  of  sixty  years,  which  is  made  up  of  two  series  of 
ten  and  twelve  each  respectively.  Every  year  has  a name  after  the 
zodiacal  sign,  or  one  of  the  five  elements.  The  first  birthday 
occurring  after  the  entire  revolution  of  the  cycle  is  a very  solemn 
event  to  a sexagenarian,  and  the  festival  commemorative  of  it  is 


296 


COREA. 


called  Wan-lcap.  All,  rich  and  poor,  noble  and  vulgar,  observe 
this  day,  which  definitely  begins  old  age,  when  man,  having  passed 
the  acknowledged  limit  of  life,  must  remember  and  repose.  When 
it  happens — a rare  event — that  the  sixty-first  anniversary  of  a 
wedding  finds  both  parties  alive,  there  are  extraordinary  rejoic- 
ings, and  the  event  is  celebrated  like  our  “ diamond  weddings.” 
For  both  these  feasts  children  and  friends  must  strain  every 
nerve,  and  spend  all  their  cash  to  be  equal  to  the  occasion  and  to 
spread  the  table  for  all  comers  ; for  at  such  a time,  not  only  the 
neighbors,  but  often  the  whole  country  folk  round  are  interested. 
A silk  robe  for  the  honored  aged,  new  clothes  for  themselves, 
and  no  end  of  wine  and  good  cheer  for  friends,  acquaintances, 
hangers-on,  country  cousins,  and  strangers  from  afar,  must  be 
provided  without  stint.  Poems  are  recited,  games  and  sports 
enjoyed,  minstrels  sing  and  dance,  and  recitations  are  given.  All 
come  with  compliments  in  their  mouths — and  a ravenous  appetite. 
All  must  be  fed  and  none  turned  away,  and  the  children  of  the 
honored  one  must  be  willing  to  spend  their  last  coin  and  econo- 
mize, or  even  starve,  for  a year  afterward.  It  is  often  as  dreadful 
an  undertaking  as  a funeral  pageant  in  other  lands.  In  the  event 
of  the  queen,  royal  mother,  or  king,  reaching  the  sixty-first  birth- 
day the  profusion  and  prodigality  of  expense  and  show  reaches  a 
height  of  shameful  extravagance.  All  the  prisons  are  opened  by 
general  amnesty,  and  the  jail-birds  fly  free.  An  extraordinary 
session  of  examiners  is  held  to  grant  degrees.  In  the  capital  all 
the  grandees  present  themselves  before  the  king  with  gifts  and 
homage.  In  all  the  rural  districts,  a large  picture  of  the  king  is 
hung  up  in  a noted  place.  The  chief  magistrate,  preceded  by 
music  and  followed  by  his  satellites,  and  all  the  people  proceed  to 
the  place  and  prostrate  themselves  before  the  effigy,  offering  their 
congratulations.  In  the  capital  the  soldiers  receive  gifts  from  the 
court,  and  the  day  is  a universal  holiday  for  the  entire  nation. 

Almost  as  matter  of  course,  the  festivals  are  used  as  means  of 
extortion  and  oppression  of  the  people  by  the  officials,  who  grind 
the  masses  mercilessly  to  provide  the  necessary  resources  for  the 
waste  and  luxury  of  the  capital  and  the  court.  New  Year’s  day  is 
not  only  the  greatest  of  all  Corean  feasts  in  universal  observance, 
but  is  also  the  only  real  Sabbath  time  of  the  year,  when  for  days 
together  all  regular  employments  cease  and  rejoicing  reigns  su- 
preme. All  debts  must  be  paid  and  accounts  squared  up,  absen- 
tees must  return,  and  children  away  from  home  must  rejoin  the 


OUT-DOOR  LIFE.— CHARACTERS  AND  EMPLOYMENTS.  297 


family.  Tlie  magistrates  close  the  tribunals,  no  arrests  are  made, 
and  prisoners  held  to  answer  for  slight  offences  are  given  leave  of 
absence  for  several  days,  after  which  they  report  again  as  pris- 
oners. All  work,  except  that  of  festal  preparation,  ought  to  cease 
during  the  last  three  days  of  the  old  year.  It  is  etiquette  to  begin 
by  visits  on  New  Year’s  Eve,  though  this  is  not  universal. 

On  New  Year’s  morning  salutations  or  calls  are  made  on 
friends,  acquaintances,  and  superiors.  To  this  ride  there  must  be 
no  exception,  on  pain  of  a rupture  of  friendly  relations.  The  chief 
ceremony  of  the  day  is  the  sacrifice  at  the  tablets  of  ancestors. 
Proceeding  to  the  family  tombs,  if  near  the  house,  or  to  the  special 
room  or  shelf  in  the  dwelling  itself,  the  entire  family  make  pros- 
trations. Costly  ceremonies,  with  incense-sticks,  etc.,  regulated 
according  to  the  family  purse,  follow.  This  is  the  most  important 
filial  and  religious  act  of  the  year.  In  cases  where  the  tombs  are 
distant,  the  visit  must  not  be  postponed  later  than  during  the  first 
month.  After  the  ancestral  sacrifices,  comes  the  distribution  of 
presents,  which  are  enclosed  in  New  Year’s  boxes.  These  consist 
of  new  dresses,  shoes,  confectionery,  jewelry  for  the  boys  and  girls, 
and  various  gifts,  chiefly  cooked  delicacies,  for  neighbors,  friends, 
and  acquaintances.  For  five  days  the  festivities  are  kept  up  by 
visits,  social  parties,  and  entertainments  of  all  sorts.  The  ordinary 
labors  of  life  are  resumed  on  the  sixth  day  of  the  new  year,  but 
with  many,  fun,  rest,  and  frolic  are  prolonged  during  the  month. 

The  tenth  day  of  the  second  month  is  the  great  house-cleaning 
day  of  the  year,  when  mats  are  taken  up  and  shaken,  the  pots, 
kettles,  and  jars  scoured,  and  the  clothing  renovated. 

Tomb-cleaning  day  occurs  in  the  third  month.  On  this  occa- 
sion they  make  offerings  of  food  to  their  ancestors,  and  cleanse 
tombs  and  tablets.  It  is  a busy  time  in  the  graveyards,  to  which 
women  transfer  their  straw  scrubbers,  dippers,  and  buckets,  when 
monuments  and  idols  are  well  soused  and  scoured.  It  is  more 
like  a picnic,  with  fun  and  work  in  equal  proportions. 

The  third  day  of  the  third  month  comes  in  spring,  and  is  the 
great  May-day  and  mem-making.  The  people  go  out  on  the  river 
with  food  and  drink,  and  spend  the  day  in  feasting  and  frolic. 
Others  wander  in  the  peach-orchards  to  view  the  blossoms.  Others 
so  inclined,  enjoy  themselves  by  composing  stanzas  of  poetry. 

On  the  eighth  day  of  the  fourth  month  the  large  cities  are 
illuminated  with  paper  lanterns  of  many  colors,  and  people  go  out 
on  hills  and  rivers  to  flew  the  gay  sights  and  natural  scenery. 


298 


COREA. 


The  fifth  day  of  the  fifth  month  is  a great  festival  day,  on 
which  the  king  presents  fans  to  his  courtiers. 

On  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  seventh  month  occurs  the  cere- 
mony of  distributing  seed.  The  king  gives  to  his  officials  one 
hundred  kinds  of  seed  for  the  crops  of  the  next  year. 

On  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  eighth  month  sacrifices  are  offered 
at  the  graves  of  ancestors  and  broken  tombs  are  repaired. 

The  chrysanthemum  festival  is  one  of  much  popular  interest 
Among  the  most  brilliant  flowers  of  the  peninsula  are  the  chry- 
santhemums, which  are  cultivated  with  great  pi-ide  and  care  by 
gentlemen  and  nobles.  The  flower  is  bi-ought  to  unusual  perfec- 
tion by  allowing  but  a single  flower  to  grow  upon  one  stem. 
They  are  often  cultivated  apart,  under  oiled  paper  frames.  On 
the  ninth  day  of  the  ninth  month  the  perfected  blossoms  ax*e  in 
their  glory,  and  the  owner  of  a crop  of  brilliant  chrysanthemums 
invites  his  fx-iends  to  his  house  to  feast  and  enjoy  the  sight  of  the 
blooms.  The  florists  exhibit  their  trixxmphs,  and  picnic  parties 
enjoy  the  scenery  from  the  bridges  and  on  the  mountains. 

The  article  chiefly  used  for  pastry  among  oblique-eyed  human- 
ity is  what  the  Japanese  call  moehi,  a substance  made  by  boiling 
lice  and  pounding  it  into  a tough  mass  resembling  pie-cnxst.  Like 
oysters,  it  may  be  eaten  “in  every  style,”  raw,  warmed,  baked, 
toasted,  boiled,  or  fried.  It  occupies  an  important  place  in  cex-e- 
moixial  offerings  to  the  dead,  in  the  temple,  and  in  horxsehold 
festal  decoration.  It  is  made  in  immense  quantities,  and  eaten 
especially  at  Xew  Year’s  time,  and  on  the  two  equinoctial  days  of 
the  year.  Another  favorite  mixed  food  for  festive  occasions  is 
“red  xice  ” and  beans.  The  Corean  housewife  takes  as  much 
pains  to  color  the  rice  properly  as  a German  lavishes  upon  his 
meex-schaum,  and  if  the  color  fails,  or  is  poor,  it  is  a sign  of  bad  luck. 

The  fourteenth  day  of  the  first  month  a person  who  is  en- 
tering upon  a critical  year  of  his  life  makes  an  effigy  of  straw, 
dresses  it  up  with  his  own  clothing  at  evening,  and  casts  it  out  on 
the  road,  and  then  feasts  merrily  dxxring  the  whole  night.  What- 
ever happens  to  the  man  of  straw  thus  kicked  out  of  the  house,  is 
supposed  to  happen  to  the  man’s  former  self,  now  gone  into  the 
past ; and  Fate  is  believed  to  look  upon  the  individual  in  new 
clothes  as  another  man. 

The  fifth,  fifteenth,  and  twenty-fifth  of  each  month  are  called 
“broken  days,”  on  which  they  avoid  beginning  anything  new. 
These  are  the  “Fridays”  of  Cho-sen.  In  the  beginning  of  each 


OUT-DOOR  LIFE.— CHARACTERS  AND  EMPLOYMENTS.  299 


of  the  four  seasons  of  the  year  they  post  up  on  the  doors  of  theii 
houses  slips  of  paper,  on  which  are  written  mottoes,  such  as  “ Lon- 
gevity is  like  the  South  Mountain,’'  “Wealth  is  like  the  Eastern 
Sea,”  etc.  Certain  years  in  each  person’s  life  are  supposed  to  be 
critical,  and  special  care  as  to  health,  food,  clothing,  new  ven- 
tures, etc.,  must  be  taken  during  these  years,  which  are  ended 
with  a feast,  or,  what  is  more  economical,  a sigh  of  relief. 

The  fifteenth  day  of  the  first  month  is  called  “ Stepping  on 
the  Bridge.”  A man  and  woman  go  out  together  over  the  bridge 
at  the  rising  of  the  moon  and  view  the  moonlit  scenery,  indulging 
meanwhile  in  refreshments,  both  of  the  solid  and  liquid  sort.  It 
is  believed  that  if  one  crosses  over  seven  bridges  on  this  night,  he 
will  be  free  from  calamities  during  the  year. 

Not  the  least  interesting  of  the  local  or  national  festivals,  are 
those  held  in  memory  of  the  soldiers  slain  in  the  service  of  their 
country  on  famous  battle-fields.  Besides  holding  annual  memorial 
celebrations  at  these  places,  which  fire  the  patriotism  of  the  people, 
there  are  temples  erected  to  soothe  the  spirits  of  the  slain.  Espe- 
cially noteworthy  are  these  monumental  edifices,  on  sites  made 
painful  to  the  national  memory  by  the  great  Japanese  invasion  of 
1592-97,  which  keep  fresh  the  scars  of  war.  A revival  of  these 
patriotic  festivals  has  been  stimulated  by  the  fanatical  haters  of 
Japan,  since  this  neighbor  country  broke  away  from  Asiatic  tradi- 
tions. 

Though  much  has  been  written  concerning  the  population  of 
Corea,  we  consider  all  conjectures  of  persons  alike  unfamiliar  with 
the  intei’ior  and  the  true  sources  of  information  as  worthless. 
These  random  figures  vary  from  250,000  (!)  to  6,000,000.  Dallet 
presumes  a population  of  10,000,000.  A rude  enumeration  made 
thirty  years  ago  gives  the  number  of  houses  at  1,700,000,  and  of 
the  people  at  7,000,000.  Our  own  opinion,  formed  after  a study 
of  the  map  and  official  lists  of  towns  and  cities,  is  that  there  are 
at  least  12,000,000  souls  in  Cho-sen  A Japanese  correspondent 
of  the  Tokio  Hochi  Shimlun,  writing  from  Seoul,  states  that  a cen- 
sus made  last  year  (1881)  shows  that  there  are  3,480,911  houses 
and  16,227,885  persons  in  the  kingdom. 


CHAPTER  XXXin. 


SHAMANISM  AND  MYTHICAL  ZOOLOGY. 

Shamanism  is  the  worship  of  a large  number  of  primitive  North 
Asiatic  tribes,  having  no  idols  except  a few  fetishes  and  some  rude 
ancestral  images  or  representations  of  the  spirits  of  the  earth  and 
air.  It  is  a gross  mixture  of  sorcery  and  sacrificial  ceremonies 
for  the  propitiation  of  evil  spirits.  These  malignant  beings  are 
supposed  to  populate  the  earth,  the  clouds,  and  the  air,  and  to  be 
the  cause  of  most  of  the  ills  suffered  by  man.  They  take  various 
forms,  chiefly  those  of  animals  whose  structure  and  anatomy  are 
more  or  less  imaginary,  each  imp  or  demon  being  a composite 
creature,  compiled  from  the  various  powers  of  locomotion,  de- 
struction, and  defence  possessed  by  the  real  creatures  that  inhabit 
water,  earth,  and  air.  Some  of  them,  however,  are  gentle  and  of 
lovely  form  and  mien.  Their  apparition  on  earth  is  welcomed 
with  delight  as  the  harbinger  of  good  things  to  come.  Confucius, 
the  teacher,  hailed  by  the  Chinese  as  their  holiest  sage,  and  to 
whom  even  divine  honors  are  paid,  believed  firmly  in  these  por- 
tents and  appearances.  Chief  among  these  mythic  creatures  are 
the  phoenix,  the  kirin,  the  dragon,  besides  a variety  of  demons  of 
various  sizes,  colors,  habits,  and  character.  Much  of  the  my- 
thology of  Cho-sen  is  that  common  to  Chinese  Asia.  Instead  of 
a gallery  of  beautiful  human,  or  partially  human,  presences  like 
that  of  Greece,  the  mythology  of  China  deals  largely  with  mythic 
animals,  though  legendary  heroes,  sages,  and  supernatural  beings  in 
human  form  are  not  lacking.  The  four  chief  ideal  creatures  are 
the  dragon,  phoenix,  tortoise,  and  kirin. 

There  is  another  animal  which,  though  a living  reality,  the 
Coreans  have  idealized  and  gifted  with  powers  supernatural  and 
supra-animal,  almost  as  many  in  number  as  those  with  which  the 
Japanese  have  endowed  the  white  fox.  This  is  the  tiger.  They 
not  only  ascribe  to  him  all  the  mighty  forces  and  characteristics 
of  which  he  is  actually  possessed,  but  popular  superstition  attritv 


SHAMANISM  AND  MYTHICAL  ZOOLOGY. 


301 


utes  to  him  tlie  powers  of  flying,  of  emitting  fire  and  hurling 
lightning.  He  is  the  symbol  of  strength  and  ubiquity,  the  stand- 
ard of  comparison  with  all  dangers  and  dreadful  forces,  and 
the  paragon  of  human  courage.  On  the  war-flags  this  animal  is 
painted  or  embroidered  in  every  posture,  asleep,  leaping,  erect, 
couchant,  winged,  and  holding  red  fire  in  his  fore-paw.  On  works 
of  art,  cabinets,  boxes,  and  weapons  the  tiger  is  most  frequently 
portrayed  and  is  even  associated  as  an  equal  with  the  four  super- 
natural beings.  In  ancient  time  he  was  worshipped. 

The  riong,  or  dragon,  whose  figure,  as  depicted  in  Corean  art, 
is  perhaps  nothing  more  than  a highly  idealized  form  of  an  ex- 
tinct geological  species  of  saurian,  is  one  of  the  four  supernatural 
or  spiritually  endowed  creatures.  He  is  an  embodiment  of  all 
the  forces  of  motion,  change,  and  power  for  offence  and  defence 
in  animal  life,  fin,  wing,  tusk,  horn,  claws,  with  the  mysterious 
attributes  of  the  serpent.  There  are  many  varieties  of  the  species 
dragon,  which  is  the  chief  of  scaly  monsters.  It  possesses  the  gift 
of  transformation  and  of  rendering  itself  visible  or  invisible  at 
will.  In  the  spring  it  ascends  to  the  skies  and  in  the  autumn 
buries  itself  in  the  watery  depths. 

It  is  this  terrific  manifestation  of  movement  and  power  which 
the  Corean  artist  loves  to  depict — always  in  connection  with 
water,  clouds,  or  the  sacred  jewel  of  which  it  is  the  guardian,  and 
for  which  it  battles,  causing  commotion  in  heaven  and  earth.  The 
dragon  is  synonymous  in  Chinese  philosophy  with  the  third  of  the 
four  creative  influences  and  indicative  of  the  East  and  Springtime, 
the  blue  dragon  being  the  guardian  of  the  East. 

Another  cycle  of  popular  notions  and  artistic  ideas  is  sug- 
gested by  its  change  of  bulk,  for  this  omnipotent  monster  “be- 
comes at  will  reduced  to  the  size  of  a silkworm  or  swollen  till  it 
fills  the  space  of  heaven  and  earth.  It  desires  to  mount,  and  it 
rises  until  it  affronts  the  clouds  ; to  sink,  and  it  descends  until 
hidden  below  the  fountains  of  the  deep.”  The  dragon  is  the 
embodiment  of  the  watery  principle  of  the  atmosphere,  and  its 
Protean  shapes  are  but  the  varied  ideal  expression  of  the  many 
forms  and  forces  of  water.  Moisture  in  its  fertilizing  or  destruc- 
tive aspects — from  the  silent  dew  to  the  roaring  tempest,  from  the 
trickling  of  a rill  to  the  tidal  wave  that  engulphs  cities — blessed, 
terrible,  gentle,  irresistible,  is  symbolized  by  the  dragon.  The 
functions  of  the  celestial  dragon  are  to  guard  the  mansions  of  the 
gods  in  heaven,  so  that  they  do  not  fall ; of  the  spiritual,  to  cause 


COREA. 


302 

the  wind  to  blow  and  produce  rain  for  the  benefit  of  mankind  ; of 
the  terrestrial,  to  mark  out  the  courses  of  rivers  and  streams,  while 
another  watches  over  the  hidden  treasures  concealed  from  mor- 
tals. This  last  is  the  dragon  that  presides  over  mines  and  gems, 
and  which  mortals  must  propitiate  or  overcome  in  order  to  gain 
the  precious  metals  and  minerals  out  of  the  earth.  Intense  belief 
in  the  dragon  is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  the  mines  in  Cho- 
sen are  so  little  worked,  and  the  metals  disturbed.  The  dragon 
pursuing  the  invaders  of  their  sanctuaries  or  fighting  each  other 
to  gain  possession  of  the  jewel  balls  or  sacred  crystals  is  a favorite 
subject  in  all  art  of  Chinese  parentage.  Rarely  is  the  whole  figure 
of  the  writhing  creature  exposed.  Partly  hidden  in  clouds  or 
water,  he  seems  ever  in  motion.  There  are  also  four  dragon-kings, 
who  have  their  palaces  in  the  world  under  the  sea,  one  ruling  in 
the  northern,  one  in  the  eastern,  one  in  the  southern,  and  one  in 
the  western  sea.  The  ministers  and  messengers  of  these  four 
monarchs  are  the  terrible  dragons  whose  battles  in  the  air  and  in 
the  deep  are  the  causes  of  the  commotion  of  the  elements.  There 
is  also  a dragon  without  horns,  and  another  that  never  ascends  to 
the  skies.  The  yellow  dragon  is  reckoned  the  most  honorable  of 
his  tribe.  In  common  belief  the  dragon  carries  on  his  forehead  a 
pear-shaped  pearl,  supposed  to  possess  wondrous  virtues  of  heal- 
ing and  power.  Whoever  possesses  these  jewels  will  be  invincible, 
and  the  power  of  his  descendants  endure. 

From  its  divine  origin  and  character  the  dragon  is  symbolical 
of  all  that  pertains  to  the  emperor  of  Great  China.  Hence  it  is 
made  use  of  not  only  by  him,  but  by  his  vassal,  the  king  of 
Clio-sen,  and  by  his  rival  the  mikado  of  Japan.  Hence  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  trio  of  these  sacred  jewels  on  ornaments  and 
instruments  belonging  to  the  royal  family,  whether  embroidered 
on  the  robes  of  state  worn  by  the  king,  surmounting  the  large 
drum  of  his  musicians,  or  glistening  in  golden  embroidery  on  the 
banners  of  his  body-guard.  The  “ dragon  robe  ” and  “ dragon’s 
bed,”  “ dragon  standard,”  refer  to  the  mantle,  throne,  and  flag  of 
the  king.  In  the  popular  speech,  whatever  is  most  excellent  is 
compared  to  a dragon.  A “ dragon-child  ” is  a paragon,  a “ dragon 
horse  ” is  one  of  extraordinary  speed.  When  “ the  fish  has 
been  metamorphosed  into  the  dragon,”  some  happy  change  or 
promotion  has  taken  place — the  student-competitor  has  received 
his  degree  of  doctorate,  or  the  office-holder  has  been  told  by 
royal  appointemnt  to  “ come  up  higher.” 


SHAMANISM  AND  MYTHICAL  ZOOLOGY. 


303 


The  kirin  (kilin  or  lin)  is  another  of  the  four  supernatural 
creatures  of  Chinese  philosophy  and  mythology,  believed  in  by 
the  Coreans,  and  depicted  in  Corean  art  especially  as  a sym- 
bol of  peace  and  joy,  and  on  articles  used  on  auspicious  and 
happy  occasions.  This  beast,  which  to  the  Corean  is  a “ living 
creature,”  has  the  body  of  a deer  and  the  tail  of  an  ox,  usually 
highly  curled  and  twisted  in  a manner  to  suggest  the  work  of  a 
hair-dresser.  On  its  forehead  is  a single  soft  horn.  It  is  said 
never  to  tread  on  or  injure  any  living  being.  It  is  the  emblem  of 
perfect  rectitude,  and  the  incarnate  essence  of  the  five  primordial 
elements  of  all  things,  viz.  : water,  fire,  wood,  metal,  earth.  It 
is  considered  the  noblest  form  of  the  animal  creation.  Its  appear- 
ance on  the  earth  is  ever  regarded  as  a happy  omen,  as  the  har- 
binger of  good  government  and  the  birth  of  good  rulers.  Hence 
the  wealth  of  association  to  the  Oriental  mind  in  the  kirin.  The 
male  beast  is  called  ki  and  the  female  rin  or  lin.  The  two  words 
combined  form  the  general  term  kirin. 

The  tortoise  is  the  centre  of  a great  circle  of  pleasing  supersti- 
tions, and  hence  is  one  of  the  set  of  symbols  oftenest  employed  in 
Corean  art.  The  practice  of  divination  is  mostly  associated  with 
tortoise-shell,  the  figuring  of  a tortoise’s  back  having  a mystic  sig- 
nification. In  Chinese  legend  a divine  tortoise  emerged  from  the 
Yellow  River,  on  the  shell  of  which  a sage  discovered  the  system  of 
numerals,  and  thus  obtained  the  foundation  of  mathematics  and  the 
rudiments  of  philosophy.  This  tortoise  was  said  to  be  the  embodi- 
ment of  the  star  in  Ursa  Major,  and  the  progenitor  of  all  the  tortoise 
tribe.  It  can  transform  itself  into  other  forms  of  life  and  lives  to  the 
age  of  ten  thousand  years.  Hence  it  is  the  symbol  of  long  life.  It  is 
said  to  conceive  by  thought  alone.  There  are  said  to  be  ten  kinds 
of  tortoises,  one  of  them  being  half  dragon,  half  tortoise,  and  with 
a tail  like  a fringe  of  silver.  This  is  the  attendant  of  the  god  of 
Avaters,  and  hence  is  often  used  as  the  top  of  a well.  The  tortoise 
is  also  the  symbol  of  immortality  and  strength,  hence  is  often 
used  over  walls  and  places  of  entrance.  Many  Corean  gateways 
are  surmounted  with  huge  tortoises  sculptured  in  stone.  The  same 
idea  is  expressed  in  making  the  representations  of  this  creature, 
cut  from  a single  rock,  the  base  for  monumental  tablets  set  into 
its  back.  The  great  seal  of  state,  the  regalia  of  sovereignty  in 
Cho-sen,  has  the  form  of  a tortoise.  The  phoenix  is  also  repre- 
sented as  standing  upon  a tortoise.  Closely  connected  with  the 
Hindoo  idea  of  the  world  resting  on  an  elephant  which  stands  on 


304 


COREA. 


a tortoise,  is  the  Chinese  idea  of  “ supporting  the  earth  with  the 
feet  of  a tortoise.”  A common  idea  in  Cho-sen,  as  in  China,  is 
the  huge  tortoise  which  supports  mountains  on  its  back,  and 
having  a shell  which  is  one  thousand  leagues  in  circumference. 

The  phoenix  (fung-wang  or  howo),  like  the  kirin,  appears  on 
the  earth  at  or  near  the  birth  of  a good  ruler,  and  hence  is 
the  emblem  of  peace  and  good  government.  The  male  is  called 
fung,  or  ho,  and  the  female  wang,  or  wo,  hence  the  generic  name 
fung-wang  or  howo.  In  its  marvellous  plumage  the  sheen  of  the 
five  colors  may  be  descried,  each  of  which  is  typical  of  the  five 
cardinal  virtues.  In  figure  it  seems  to  be  an  ideal  combination 
of  the  peacock  and  the  golden  pheasant,  but  with  feathers  won- 
drously  curled  and  made  into  ringlets.  It  is  not  only  a symbol  of 
auspicious  government,  but  of  inseparable  fellowship,  and  many 
stanzas  of  poetry  refer  to  it  as  typical  of  courtship  and  conjugal 
love.  In  its  voice  are  many  intonations,  to  each  of  which  a name 
is  given.  For  this  reason  it  is  a favorite  element  in  the  decoration 
of  musical  instruments. 

Another  symbol  often  used  is  the  Chinese  lion,  with  marvel- 
lously curled  hair  and  mane.  Every  tuft  is  a mass  of  fanciful  ring- 
lets, and  the  beast  is  so  pictured  as  to  make  a masterpiece  of 
ugliness  and  terror.  The  dog  of  the  breed  called  ngao,  so  named 
after  the  earth-supporting  tortoise,  is  also  liberally  furnished  with 
tooth,  nail,  and  hair.  It  usually  cuts  the  figure  of  guardian  on  the 
edge  or  lid  of  vessels  in  which  are  kept  treasures  which,  because 
they  tempt  the  palate,  tempt  also  the  fingers  that  lift  to  the 
mouth.  The  marvellous  creature  called  the  Dog  of  Fo,  or  Bud- 
dha, usually  associated  with  Chinese-Buddhist  art,  is  believed  to 
be  of  Corean  origin.  Jacquemart  calls  it  the  “ Dog  of  Corea.” 

Other  mythical  creatures  that  have  their  existence  in  the  Co- 
rean imagination  are  in  the  form  of  fishes  and  serpents.  The  in-e 
(fish-man  or  merman)  is  a sort  of  siren  that  is  supposed  to  inhabit 
the  Sea  of  Japan  and  the  Eastern  Sea,  but  whether  partly  fabulous 
or  entirely  real,  we  are  unable  to  say.  It  is  six  or  seven  feet  long, 
and  in  its  head  and  body  resembles  a human  being,  as  its  nose, 
mouth,  ears,  and  arms,  or  flippers,  are  covered  with  white  skin 
without  scales.  It  has  a long  and  slender  tail,  like  that  of  a horse. 
It  suckles  its  young,  and  sheds  tears  when  its  offspring  are  cap- 
tured. It  is  probable  that  this  creature,  though  called  a fish- 
man  by  the  Coreans,  is  the  animal  of  which  we  read,  in  several 
instances,  being  presented  to  the  Manchiu  emperors  in  Peking. 


SHAMANISM  AND  MYTHICAL  ZOOLOGY. 


305 


One  of  them  inquired  whether  such  a creature  was  known  in 
Europe,  and  the  Jesuit  friar,  producing  a book,  showed  an  engrav- 
ing of  one  similar.  Perhaps  this  “fish-man”  is  the  same  as  a 
reported  “ dog-fish  or  shark,”  living  in  the  seas  around  Quelpart, 
whose  tears  produce  pearls. 

The  i-sium,  a colossal  marine  creature,  is  purely  imaginary, 
like  the  “ earthquake-fish  ” of  the  Japanese,  which  causes  the  con- 
tinent to  shake.  The  word  is  pure  Corean,  and  may  answer  to  our 
symbol  of  vastness  and  uncertainty 
— the  sea-serpent.  Mr.  Fergusson 
would  doubtless  find  a new  chapter 
for  his  “Tree  and  Serpent  Worship” 
in  Cho-sen,  for,  in  the  peninsula,  not 
only  are  trees  reverenced  as  the  abode 
of  spirits,  but  the  sa,  or  snakes,  are 
rarely,  if  ever,  harmed.  The  people 
feed,  venerate,  and  even  worship  them 
as  the  guardian  genii  of  their  house- 
holds. The  epkuron-gi  (a  pure  Cor- 
ean word)  is  the  name  by  which  they 
call  the  serpent  which  presides  over 
their  family  Edens.  Instead  of  being 
looked  upon  as  the  embodiment  of 
the  principle  of  evil,  as  in  Semitic  lore, 
their  presence  is  hailed  as  an  omen 
of  blessing.  They  are  treated  like 
pets.  In  their  heads  they  are  be- 
lieved to  carry  a precious  jewel  after 
they  have  lived  long.  A serpent  often 
fives  to  be  one  thousand  years  old, 
and  then  bears  in  his  front  a glisten- 
ing gem,  called  ya-kang-chiu,  which 
name  the  people  also  apply  to  any 
glittering  stone,  especially  the  diamond.  The  guardian  serpent 
is  represented  as  double-winged,  with  forked  tongue,  long  and 
darting,  flying  among  the  clouds  and  protecting  its  worshippers 
by  pursuing  their  enemies.  The  illustration  here  given  is  copied 
from  one  of  the  war-flags  earned  by  the  Corean  mountaineers  from 
their  homes  to  the  forts  on  the  Han  River,  in  1871.  The  staff  is 
tipped  with  pheasant-feathers  and  horse-hair. 

Their  fear  of  the  serpent  is  the  basis  of  their  worship,  and  the 
20 


in  1871. 


306 


COREA. 


average  Corean  does  not  fail  to  take  due  precaution  to  guard 
against  its  sting.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  osa  or  black  snake, 
there  is  the  venomous  viper,  salmo,  which  “ kills  its  mother  at 
birth.”  Its  bite  is  considered  exceedingly  dangerous.  The  tai- 
mang  is  a great  serpent.  The  flower  called  Jciulc-sa-wa  (snake- 
bane),  or  Eye  of  India,  is  believed  by  Coreans  to  keep  away  the 
reptiles,  and  hence  is  highly  valued. 

Hamel  and  the  French  missionaries  agree  in  picturing  Corea 
as  a land  well  supplied  with  reptiles,  serpents,  and  vermin  of  all 
sorts,  and  testify  to  the  veneration  of  them  by  the  people.  In 
the  folk-lore  of  the  country,  the  beasts  play  a conspicuous  part. 

Another  creature  to  whom  wings  rightfully  belong  is  the  gin-sai. 
This  fabulous  bird  is  capable  of  diffusing  so  venomous  an  influ- 
ence that  even  its  shadow  poisons  food. 

Even  the  brief  list  of  creatures  which  we  have  enumerated 
does  not  exhaust  the  list  of  the  beings  which  are  real  and  active 
to  the  imagination  of  the  people.  Science  and  Christianity  are 
the  remedies  for  this  delirium  tremens  of  paganism. 

The  ancient  and  still  lingering  belief  in  the  powers  of  the  air 
and  all  the  creatures  therein,  visible  and  invisible,  is  reflected  on 
their  triangular  and  streamer-shaped  war-banners.  They  believe 
that  all  these  creatures  and  all  the  forces  of  nature  are  under  the 
control  of  the  spirits,  who  will  give  or  withhold  sunshine  or  rain, 
send  blasting  mildew  and  pestilence,  or  fertility,  plenty  and  joy, 
according  as  they  are  pleased  or  displeased. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  what  a soil  the  demagogue  has  for  sow- 
ing dragons’  teeth,  and  what  frightful  popular  commotion  may  be 
stirred  up  by  playing  upon  the  fears  of  the  populace.  The  most 
recent  illustration  of  this  is  seen  in  the  frightful  massacre  of  the 
ministers  and  the  Japanese,  in  July,  1882.  The  long  drought 
having  ruined  the  rice  crop,  the  leaders  of  the  anti-foreign  faction 
persuaded  the  common  people  that  the  spirits  were  annoyed  at  the 
introduction  of  foreigners,  and  therefore  withheld  the  rain.  In  this 
belief  they  were  strengthened  from  the  fact  that  it  rained  heavily 
for  many  hours  after  the  Japanese  had  been  driven  out  of  Seoul. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 


LEGENDS  AND  FOLK-LORE. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  appreciate  or  understand  the  history  of 
people  whose  psychology  is  our  own.  We  seem  to  look  through 
white  light  in  gazing  at  their  past  as  told  in  the  words  of  a lan- 
guage that  grew  in  the  same  mental  sunlight  with  our  own.  In 
eating  fruit  that  grows  on  familiar  intellectual  soil,  we  may  some- 
times recognize  a slightly  strange  flavor,  but  the  pulp  is  good  food 
which  our  mental  stomach  does  not  reject,  but  readily  assimilates. 
Truth,  like  the  moon,  usually  presents  one  side  only,  but  the  mass 
of  mankind  do  not  think  of  this,  even  if  they  know  it.  They  go 
on  blissfully  imagining  they  have  seen  all  sides,  even  the  full  orb. 

With  the  history  of  the  Aryan  nations  we  are  familiar,  and 
think  it  is  clear  to  us.  We  insist  that  we  know  we  can  understand 
what  they  did  and  that  their  thoughts  need  no  translation  to  us. 

A visitor  at  the  American  Centennial,  or  any  exposition  of  the 
industry  of  all  nations,  sees  before  him  for  comparative  study  the 
art,  symbols  of  religion,  architecture,  implements  of  domestic  life, 
and  all  the  outward  expressions  of  inward  ideas.  They  are  the 
clothed  or  concrete  soul  of  man  under  the  varied  civilizations  of 
this  planet.  Standing  before  the  exhibits  of  India — the  home  of 
the  Aryan  nations — the  man  of  Western  Christendom,  as  his 
mind’s  eye  surveys  the  vastness  of  difference  between  him  and  the 
Hindoo,  is  yet  able  to  bridge  the  gulf.  The  researches  into  lan- 
guage, art,  myths,  folk-lore,  show  him  that  the  infancy  of  the  two 
races  was  the  same,  and  that  modem  differences  are  impertinent 
accidents.  At  bottom  the  Aryan  and  the  Hindoo  are  brothers. 

No  such  reconciliation  of  ideas  is  yet  demonstrable  between 
the  Mongolian  and  the  Aryan.  Before  the  art,  symbols,  ideas, 
literature,  language,  and  physical  presence  of  the  man  of  Cathay, 
no  bridging  of  the  gulf  seems  yet  possible.  He  appears  to  be  a 
man  of  another  planet  Language  gives  as  yet  little  clue  to  a 
common  origin  ; art  and  symbol  seem  at  the  other  pole,  and  in 


308 


COREA. 


psychology  the  difference  at  present  seems  total  and  irrecon- 
cilable. 

Hence,  to  attempt  to  write  the  history  of  a Turanian  people  by 
simply  narrating  bald  facts  in  an  occidental  language,  seems  to  be 
but  putting  another  white  skeleton  in  the  museum  of  nations. 
Even  the  attempt,  by  a purely  destructive  method  of  criticism,  to 
manufacture  a body,  or  corpse,  rather,  of  history,  by  hacking 
away  all  legend  and  tradition  to  get  out  what  the  critic  is  pleased 
to  call  “ history,”  seems  at  once  unnatural  and  false.  It  is  like 
attempting  to  correlate  the  genius  of  Shakspeare  with  ounces  of 
beef  and  cheese,  or  to  measure  the  market  value  of  poetry  by 
avoirdupois.  A history  of  an  Asiatic  people  ought  to  be  as  much 
a history  of  mind,  of  psychology,  as  of  facts  or  dynasties.  Hence, 
in  writing  of  a new  and  almost  unknown  people  like  the  Coreans, 
we  think  it  as  important  to  tell  what  they  believe  to  have  hap- 
pened, as  to  attempt  to  state  what  we  think  actually  did  happen. 
To  understand  a people  we  must  know  their  thoughts,  as  well  as 
their  physical  environment. 

According  to  Corean  tradition,  the  origin  of  their  country  and 
people  is  thus  outlined : 

Of  old  the  land  had  neither  prince  nor  chiefs.  A Divine  Being 
descended  from  heaven  and  took  up  his  abode  at  the  foot  of  a 
sandal-wood  tree  on  the  Ever- White  Mountains.  The  people  of 
the  land  became  his  subjects,  made  him  their  sovereign  and  called 
him  Dan  Kun  (the  Sandal  Prince),  and  his  realm  ChO-sen  (Morn- 
ing Calm).  This  took  place  in  the  time  of  Tang  Ti  Yao  (235G 
b.c.  ).  His  first  residence  was  at  Ping-an.  Later  he  transferred  it 
to  Pe-yo,  where  his  descendants  remained  till  the  eighth  year  of 
the  emperor  Wu  Ting  of  the  Chang  dynasty  (1317  B.C.),  when 
they  were  established  in  Mount  Asstak.  His  descendants  reigned 
in  Cho-sen  more  than  one  thousand  years,  but  nothing  more  is 
known  of  them  after  the  period  covered  by  their  reign.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  occupation  of  the  country  by  the  Chinese  noble  Ki  Tsze. 

The  mythical  origin  and  founding  of  Shinra  is  thus  told  in  the 
local  legends  of  the  place.  After  the  invasion  of  Cho-sen,  by  the 
Chinese  emperor,  many  of  the  original  inhabitants  fled  and  scat- 
tered over  the  east  coast.  They  made  settlements  on  the  moun- 
tains, in  the  valleys,  and  along  the  sea-shore,  some  of  which  in 
time  grew  to  be  cities  and  large  towns.  One  day  the  attention  of 
the  head  man  of  one  of  the  villages  was  attracted  by  the  neighing 
of  horses  toward  a mountain.  He  went  in  the  direction  of  the 


LEGENDS  AND  FOLK-LORE. 


309 


sounds,  but  instead  of  a horse  he  found  an  egg  of  extraordinary 
size,  shaped  like  a gourd.  Carefully  breaking  it  open,  he  discov- 
ered a beautiful  rosy  boy-baby  inside.  The  old  man’s  heart  was 
touched  by  the  sight,  and  he  took  the  child  to  his  home  and 
adopted  it  as  his  own.  The  boy  grew  up  beloved  of  all  who  saw 
or  knew  him.  When  but  thirteen  years  old,  the  elders  of  the  six 
principal  towns  gathered  together  and  chose  him  as  their  lord 
and  master.  They  gave  him  a name  signifying  “ Coming  Out  of 
the  West,”  and  to  the  country  a name  meaning  “Born  of  the 
Gourd-egg.”  The  new  king  took  to  wife  a fair  maiden  who  was 
reputed  to  be  the  offspring  of  a well-dragon.  They  reigned  for 
sixty  years,  when  their  daughter  succeeded  to  the  throne. 

In  the  fifth  year  of  her  reign  she  married  a youth  who  had 
come  from  afar,  whose  origin  was  as  wonderful  as  that  of  her  own 
parents.  His  mother  the  queen  had  been  delivered  of  an  egg. 
Her  husband,  not  enjoying  such  a form  of  offspring,  threw  the  egg 
away,  but  the  queen  recovering  it,  carefully  wrapped  it  in  a silk 
napkin,  and  with  many  other  treasures  put  it  in  a box  and  set  it 
adrift  on  the  sea.  After  many  days  the  box  was  washed  ashore  on 
a distant  coast.  The  fishermen  who  picked  it  up  in  their  nets 
thought  nothing  of  it,  and  threw  it  into  the  sea  again.  It  drifted 
into  one  of  the  harbors  of  Shinra.  An  old  woman  finding  it, 
opened  the  lid  and  found  a lovely  boy  with  a smile  on  his  face. 
Carefully  nourishing  him,  he  grew  up  to  be  a man  of  strength, 
nine  feet  high.  He  excelled  all  other  youths  in  bodily  vigor  and 
accomplishments.  When  the  old  woman  first  picked  up  the  waif, 
there  were  a number  of  crows  standing  around  the  shore,  and  the 
crone  gave  him  a name  referring  to  the  presence  of  these  birds — 
“ Opened  in  Presence  of  the  Crows.”  Excelling  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  geomancy,  he  found  a good  place  for  a residence  and 
built  on  it.  Healing  of  his  renown,  the  queen  of  Shinra  married 
him  to  her  daughter. 

One  evening  the  newly  made  king  heard  a cock  crow  in  the 
woods  toward  the  west.  He  sent  his  servants  after  it,  who  found 
a small  golden  casket  suspended  from  a tree.  Under  it  a white- 
cock  was  crowing.  The  servant  reported  the  matter  to  his  master. 
Another  servant  was  despatched  to  the  place.  He  returned  with 
the  box,  which,  being  opened,  was  found  to  contain  a boy  baby, 
who  was  given  the  name  signifying  “ The  Golden  Boy  from  the 
Grove  in  which  the  Cock  crowed.”  The  baby  boy  grew  up  and 
succeeded  his  father.  In  the  reign  of  the  twenty-second  king  of 


310 


COREA. 


the  line,  the  people  of  the  country,  then  called  Shin-han.  changed 
the  name  of  their  country  to  Shinra. 

In  the  “ Grammaire  Coriene  ” there  are  a number  of  speci. 
mens  of  folk-lore  given  in  Corean  and  French,  from  vrhich  we 
extract  a few  of  the  most  characteristic.  The  first  one  is  an  illus- 
tration of  our  universal  human  nature. 

THP  THTtrr  WISHES. 

There  were  once  two  old  married  folks  who  had  not  a single  child,  boy  or 
girl.  Extremely  poor,  they  lived  a pitiable  life.  One  evening,  when  it  was 
very  cold  in  winter,  after  having  sapped,  they  gazed  into  the  fire  in  the  bra- 
zier, and  sitting  in  their  room  face  to  face  they  warmed  themselves  a moment 
in  silence,  when  the  good  old  man  thus  spoke : 

"For  the  rich  the  winter  is  an  excellent  season ; their  food  is  prepared  in 
advance.  Having  no  toil  they  have  only  to  take  their  ease.  But  for  the  poor, 
it  is  a rough  time  when  they  have  neither  food  for  the  mouth  nor  fuel.  If 
they  go  out  over  the  mountain  through  the  rain  or  the  snow  to  seek  wood,  they 
die  of  cold  or  frost.” 

The  good  dame  replied : “ They  say  that  Heaven  is  just.  Why  then  does 
he  permit  this  ? They  say,  besides,  that  when  you  pray  to  Heaven,  it  is  easy 
to  obtain  that  which  you  need.  If  we  ask  to  become  rich — ” said  she. 

“You  are  right,  do  so,”  replied  the  husband. 

And  both  prostrating  themselves,  prayed  fervently  to  the  Deity,  when  sud- 
denly an  angel  appeared. 

‘‘In  spite  of  your  sin  of  murmuring,  Heaven  having  pitied  you,  accords 
you  three  things,  after  which  you  can  ask  no  more.  Reflect  well,  choose,  and 
ask."  Saying  this  he  disappeared. 

The  old  man  made  this  proposition:  “If  we  ask  riches,  freedom  from 
sickness,  or  long  life — ” 

“ No,"  said  the  old  woman.  “ we  should  not  enjoy  these  things  properly  if 
we  do  not  have  a child.  What  pleasure  will  it  be  ? ” 

“ Hold  ! I have  not  asked.  What  shall  I do  ? If  he  had  only  said  four 
things  at  the  good  moment ! Why  did  he  say  only  three?  Since  we  wish  to 
have  a child,  must  we  forego  freedom  from  sickness,  must  we  renounce  riches, 
must  we  give  up  long  life  * It  is  hard  to  decide.  Think,  then,  seriously  this 
night,  and  decide  to-morrow.” 

Breaking  o5  their  conversation,  both  sat  plunged  in  reverie.  At  the  mo- 
ment of  lying  down  to  sleep,  the  old  woman,  stirring  uz>  the  fire  with  the 
tongs,  launched  out  with  this  reflection,  “ If  we  could  have  three  or  four  feet 
of  pudding  to  set  to  toast  on  this  brazier,  that  would  be  royally  excellent-” 

She  spoke,  and  there  was  three  feet  of  food  placed  by  her  side. 

The  husband,  beside  himself  with  rage,  screamed  out — 

“Oh ! what  a woman ! By  one  stroke  you  have  lost  all  our  benefits.  To 
punish  you  I wish  the  pudding  would  hang  itself  on  the  point  of  your  nose.” 

Immediately  the  pudding  made  a leap  and  attached  itself  to  the  old  dame's 
nose. 


LEGENDS  AND  FOLK-LORE. 


311 


At  this  the  husband  cried  out,  “Hello!  Angry  as  I am,  I have  also  by 
my  fault  lost  a wish.  ” Seizing  the  sausage  to  detach  it,  they  pulled,  first  one, 
then  the  other,  almost  dislocating  the  nose,  but  the  sausage  held  on. 

“Alas!  ” said  the  woman  in  tears,  “if  this  is  always  to  remain  hanging 
here,  how  can  I live  ? ” 

The  husband,  on  the  contrary,  without  being  at  all  disturbed,  said,  “If 
even  yet  our  wish  of  fortune  is  fulfilled,  we  could  make  a tube  of  gold  to  hide 
this  sausage,  and  then  drawing  it  out  at  length,  it  will  be  only  more  beautiful 
to  see.” 

The  wife,  still  more  miserable,  cried  out,  “Oh,  wretched  me,  only  to 
think  that  fortune  should  wish  to  put  it  there.  Well!  whether  you  he  rich 
or  live  long,  as  for  me,  I should  like  to  kill  myself.  ” 

Saying  this  she  took  a cord  and  went  to  strangle  herself  at  the  end  of  a 
beam.  The  husband,  struck  with  fear,  and  touched  with  compassion,  hastened 
to  set  her  free. 

“Stop,”  said  he,  “there  remains  one  wish  to  us.  Have  your  own  way 
about  it.” 

“If  that  is  so,  I wish  that  what  hangs  to  my  nose  comes  loose.  Quick, 
quick,  that  it  may  go  swift  away.  That  is  my  chief  wish.  ” 

She  had  hardly  finished  speaking  when  the  sausage  fell  plump  to  the 
ground,  and  out  of  the  midst  of  the  heaven  an  angry  voice  was  heard : 

“You  have  obtained  the  three  things  which  you  wished  for,  and  have  you 
gained  a great  advantage  ? If  you  wish  to  enjoy  true  blessing  in  this  world 
be  content  to  live  with  what  Heaven  gives,  and  do  not  form  vain  desires.” 

The  two  old  folks  spitted  the  pudding,  ate  it,  and  from  this  night  they 
abstained  from  foolish  wishes. 

On  the  morrow,  agreeably  to  their  supreme  ambition,  which  was  to  have  a 
baby,  they  found  a little  fatherless  and  motherless  orphan.  Having  adopted 
it  as  their  child,  they  gave  him  a good  education  and  lived  happily  to  extreme 

old  age. 

The  following  illustrates  official  shrewdness  and  rapacity  : 

THE  HISTOKY  OF  A NOSE. 

In  the  chief  city  of  Chulla,  there  was  a politician  who  was  in  debt  to  the 
government  to  the  amount  of  ten  thousand  strings  of  cash.  Unable  to  pay 
the  same,  he  was  condemned  to  death.  Cast  into  prison,  he  awaited  only 
the  orders  of  the  king  to  carry  out  the  sentence.  As  he  had  thought  hard  with- 
out discovering  any  means  to  get  out  of  the  affair,  he  bethought  himself  of  a 
stratagem.  So,  addressing  the  jailer,  he  said : 

“ Helloa  ! you  there,  you’ll  do  well  to  let  me  go  free  a little  while.” 

“ Helloa ! ” answered  the  jailer,  “ what  wretched  talk  ! After  I have  set  free 
a man  who  ought  to  be  put  to  death  to-morrow  or  day  after  to-morrow,  what 
shall  I do  ? ” 

The  prisoner  replied,  “ Are  we  not  friends  both  of  us  ? If  you  do  not  let 
me  go,  who  can  save  my  life?  Think  over  it  a little  and  see.  My  wife,  my 
children,  my  house,  all  I have,  all  my  relations  and  friends  being  here,  where 


312 


COREA. 


shall  I fly  ? If  you  set  me  at  liberty  for  some  moments  not  only  will  I not  ab« 
scond  but  there  will  be  found  means  for  preserving  my  life  safely.  Do  so." 

As  he  thus  besought  him  eagerly,  the  jailer,  struck  with  compassion, 
could  not  do  otherwise  than  let  him  go. 

So  at  midnight  he  presented  himself  before  the  door  of  the  room  where 
the  governor  slept,  and  thus  addressed  him. 

“ Are  you  asleep  ? Is  your  excellency  sleeping  ? ” 

Hearing  the  sound  and  astonished  at  recognizing  the  voice  of  the  officer  who 
had  been  cast  into  prison  and  was  to  be  executed  in  a short  time,  the  gov- 
ernor asked. 

“ Who  are  you?  ” 

“ Tour  servant,”  answered  the  officer. 

“ A scoundrel  who  is  at  the  point  of  being  executed,  how  is  it  you  are  here?  ’’ 

“If  I may  be  allowed  to  enter  to  salute  you,”  said  the  officer,  “I  have 
something  particular  to  say  to  you.” 

“Oh,  well,  come  in  and  speak.” 

The  officer  entering,  approached,  sat  down,  and  said  : 

“I  pray  your  excellency  to  reflect  and  consider  my  purpose.  If  you  put 
your  servant  to  death  this  will  be  simply  one  man  of  means  less  in  the  world, 
and  the  money  I owe  will  be  lost  to  the  government.  What  advantage  will 
you  thus  derive?  If,  on  the  contrary,  you  preserve  my  life  there  will  be  one 
man  more  in  the  world,  and  I shall  repay  the  whole  of  my  debt  to  the  govern- 
ment. Let  me  then  live.” 

“If  it  ought  to  be  so  I wish  you  well  in  the  matter.” 

“ Your  servant  will  come  again,  then,  to-morrow,  during  the  night,  to  see 
you.” 

“ Do  as  you  will.” 

The  morrow  during  the  night  the  officer  presented  himself  anew  and  asked 
to  be  introduced.  Approaching  he  made  the  prostrations  before  the  governor, 
drew  from  his  sleeve  a packet  which  he  undid  and  took  out  a sketch  represent- 
ing a human  nose.  He  immediately  besought  the  governor  to  please  put  his 
seal  upon  the  sketch. 

Agreeing  to  the  proposal  the  governor  imposed  his  seal. 

The  officer  now  associated  three  companions  who  were  in  the  plot,  and  they 
all  assembled  upon  the  coast  of  the  Eastern  Sea,  where  they  found  a populous 
village,  in  the  midst  of  which  rose  a high  and  grand  mansion.  Taking  their 
drink  of  spirits  at  a hotel  in  the  suburbs  of  the  next  village  beyond,  they  pre- 
pared to  sup.  Addressing  their  host  they  put  this  question  : 

“What  is  the  name  of  the  village  which  is  just  behind  us?  Whose  is  the 
largest  house?  ” 

The  inn-keeper  answered,  “ That  is  the  house  of  a very  rich  noble.  Last 
year  he  received  the  degree  of  the  doctorate  and  is  eligible  to  fill  very  soon  a 
very  high  position  under  the  government.” 

The  officer  taking  with  him  one  of  his  comrades  repaired  to  the  mansion, 
where,  as  he  noticed,  everything  showed  abundant  means,  and  thus  spoke  to 
the  son, 

“As  we  have  a secret  affair  to  treat  of,  let  us  go  into  another  room,”  said 
the  officer. 


LEGENDS  AND  FOLK-LORE 


313 


They  did  so.  “See  here,  the  king  is  very  sick,  and  they  have  called  all 
the  physicians  from  all  the  eight  provinces  for  a consultation.  They  have  de- 
clared that  the  only  means  to  obtain  healing  is  to  find  the  nose  of  a man  just 
like  this,  and  to  concoct  a remedy  from  it.  This  is  why  we  have  been  com- 
manded by  the  Court,  where  they  have  said  to  us,  putting  in  our  hand  this 
sketch  of  the  nose.  ‘Without  distinction  of  place  or  person  if  you  meet  a nose 
similar  to  this,  strike  it  off  and  produce  it  before  us  in  this  place.’  Obeying 
this  severe  order  we  have  been  out  many  times  without  being  able  to  find  a 
nose  conforming  to  the  sketch,  and  thus  far  have  made  useless  journeys,  but 
now,  without  peradventure,  your  honorable  father’s  nose  exactly  resembles 
this.  We  demand  to  see  him,  and  wherever  he  may  be  we  shall  not  depart  till 
we  have  cut  it  off.  ” 

The  son  cried  out:  “ Perhaps  they  do  say  such  things  ! ” 

“ Who  dare  oppose  the  government  business?  Hurry,  hurry,  strike  it  off 
and  we’ll  go.” 

The  son  fell  into  a study  and  reflected. 

“It  is  an  affair  of  state.  This  is  a matter  which  we  cannot  prevent.  Cut 
it  off,  they  say,  but  to  cut  off  the  nose  of  my  old  father,  that  is  altogether  im- 
possible. The  entire  family,  men,  women,  young  and  old,  every  one  will  be 
plunged  into  woe.  You  can  bear  away  the  half  of  our  fortune  at  least,  if  you 
will  go  away  without  taking  my  father’s  nose.  ” 

The  officer  replied,  “ We  had  proposed  to  ourselves  to  depart  only  after 
having  cut  off  the  nose.  However,  as  this  is  a matter  of  a son  devoted  to  his 
father,  and  that  they  may  not  repress  filial  piety  in  others,  we  shall  not  cut  off 
the  nose.  If  you  will  give  us  a certain  sum  we  will  go  elsewhere  to  procure  a 
nose  which  we  shall  present  to  the  king.” 

He  accepted  with  thanks  a sum  equal  to  many  times  ten  thousand  strings 
of  cash,  for  which  he  gave  a receipt,  told  the  sender  of  the  money  such  a day, 
such  a place,  and  on  leaving  offered  this  recommendation  : 

“Upon  the  whole,  say  nothing  of  this  affair.  If  it  should  leak  out,  and 
the  government  comes  to  know  that  having  found  a proper  nose  we  have  been 
bribed  not  to  cut  it  off,  we  shall  be  arrested  and  put  to  death,  they  will  cer- 
tainly cut  off  your  father’s  nose  and  take  your  money  also.  Pray  then  be  care- 
ful not  to  divulge  this  secret.”  Upon  this  they  took  their  leave. 

Overjoyed  at  not  having  his  parent’s  nose  amputated,  but  believing  that  the 
king  on  being  informed  would  send  again  on  this  business,  the  son  dared  let 
no  one  know  until  the  day  of  his  father’s  death.  Then  breaking  the  silence 
he  said,  “ I have  bought  my  father’s  nose  for  thousand  strings  of  cash.” 

The  story  here  told  explains  itself.  Cheng-chong  was  the  Har- 
oun  al  Raschid  of  Corea. 

AN  INSTANCE  OF  KOYAL  SOLICITUDE. 

There  was  in  Cho-sen  a king  called  His  Majesty  Cheng-chong,  who  was  cel- 
ebrated in  all  the  kingdom  for  his  goodness.  One  night,  disguised  as  a coun- 
tryman, and  accompanied  only  by  a single  companion,  he  started  out  from  the 
midst  of  the  capital  to  make  a circuit  in  order  to  inform  himself  of  the  temper 
of  his  subjects,  and  to  become  himself  acquainted  with  the  details  of  their  life. 


314 


COREA, 


Arrived  at  a certain  point  he  looked  in  the  window.  There  was  a miser* 
able  house,  of  which  the  outer  dilapidation,  extremely  pitiable  as  it  was,  led 
him  to  suspect  in  the  interior  a state  of  things  difficult  to  imagine.  Eagerly 
wishing  to  know  what  it  was,  he  punched  a peep-hole  in  the  paper  door  and 
perceived  an  old  man  weeping,  a man  in  mourning  singing,  and  a nun  or 
widow  dancing.  Unable  to  divine  the  cause  of  this  spectacle,  he  ordered  his 
companion  to  call  the  master  of  the  house.  The  king’s  servant  doing  so,  said : 
“ Is  the  proprietor  of  the  house  at  home  ? ” 

Hearing  this  voice  the  man  in  mourning  made  his  appearance.  His  Majesty 
saluting  him  said : 

“ We  have  never  before  met.” 

“ True,”  said  the  man  in  mourning,  “ but  whence  are  you  ? How  is  it  that 
you  should  come  to  find  me  at  midnight  ? To  what  family  do  you  belong  ? ” 
Cheng-cliong  answered,  “ I am  Mr.  Ni,  living  at  Tong-ku-an.  As  I was 
passing  before  your  house,  I was  attracted  by  strange  sounds.  Then  by  a hole 
which  I made  in  the  door,  I saw  an  old  man  weeping,  a nun  who  danced,  and 
a gentleman  in  mourning  who  sang.  Why  did  the  old  man  shed  tears,  the  nun 
dance,  and  the  man  in  mourning  sing  ? Unable  to  fathom  the  motive  I have 
made  my  friend  call  the  householder  with  the  purpose  of  informing  myself.” 
The  man  in  mourning  rejoined,  “ Have  you  any  business  to  know  other 
people’s  matters  ? What  is  your  reason  for  acting  thus  when  it  concerns  you 
so  little  ? The  night  is  well  gone.  Get  back  as  quickly  as  possible.” 

“No,  not  at  all.  I acknowledge  that  it  is  not  becoming  to  pry  into  the  af- 
fairs of  others,  but  this  is  such  an  extraordinary  case  I beg  of  you  give  me 
some  light  on  the  matter.” 

“Alas!  ” said  the  man  in  mourning,  “why  is  the  gentleman  so  eager  to 
know  other  people’s  matters  ? ” 

Cheng-cliong  replied,  “ It  is  important  that  I should  be  somewhat  informed.  ” 
“ Since  the  gentleman  wishes  so  much  to  know,  I cannot  do  other  than  tell. 
This  is  why.  My  family  has  always  been  poor.  In  my  hut  one  could  never 
find  sufficient  grain  for  a meal  and  one  flea  would  not  have  enough  room  upon 
my  land  to  squat  upon.  I have  no  victuals  for  my  old  father.  This  is  why, 
morning  and  evening,  in  default  of  all  other  resource,  my  wife  has  often  cut 
oft  a tress  of  her  hair  and  gone  and  sold  it  to  buy  a cup  of  bean-soup,  which 
she  graciously  offers  to  my  father.  This  evening  she  clipped  and  sold  all  of 
her  hair  that  remained,  and  by  this  she  has  become  bare-headed  like  a nun. 
My  old  father,  seeing  that  for  his  sake  his  young  daughter-in-law  has  become 
a nun,  broke  out  into  mourning  in  these  terms : 

“ 1 Why  have  I lived  to  this  day  ? Why  am  I not  dead  ? Why  have  I thus 
degraded  my  daughter-in-law  ? ’ And  in  saying  this  he  shed  tears.  To  con- 
sole him,  my  wife  said  to  him,  ‘ Do  not  weep,’  and  she  danced.  I,  also,  al- 
though in  mourning,  joined  in  with  my  wife.  One  danced,  the  other  sang. 
This  made  my  old  father  smile,  and  perhaps  gave  him  solace.  There  1 that  is 
why  we  behaved  so.  Do  not  think  it  strange,  and  go  away.” 

Listening  to  this  narrative  the  king  was  impressed  with  such  a marked  su- 
preme devotion  on  the  part  of  the  son  and  daughter-in-law,  even  in  the  time 
of  deepest  misfortune,  and  he  said,  “This  is  the  most  extraordinary  thing  in 
the  world.  How  will  it  do  to  present  you  at  the  examination  to-morrow  ? ” 


LEGENDS  AND  FOLK-LORE. 


315 


«•  What  examination  to-morrow  ? ” asked  the  man. 

“Why,  certainly,”  said  Cheng-chong,  “to-morrow  there  will  be  an  examin- 
ation. By  all  means  don’t  fail  to  be  there.  ” 

The  man  responded,  “ But  I have  not  heard  it  said  that  there  is  to  be  an 
jxamination.  ” 

“Whether  you  have  heard  or  not,”  said  the  king,  “prepare  to  compete, 
and  present  yourself.  As  I shall  also  present  myself  to-morrow  I shall  give 
you  a stall  in  the  enclosure.” 

Having  thus  spoken  he  took  his  leave,  returned  to  the  palace  and  awaited 
the  stroke  of  the  great  clock-bell. 

No  sooner  did  he  hear  the  vibration  of  the  mighty  gong  than  he  immedi- 
ately gave  the  order  to  announce  promptly  the  examination  in  the  city,  and 
beyond  the  walls,  to  the  utter  astonishment  of  the  literary  men,  who  said, 
“ Even  until  yesterday  no  one  had  heard  of  an  examination,  and  behold  it  was 
published  during  the  night.  What  does  this  mean  ? ” 

The  poor  householder  on  his  part  made  this  reflection,  “ Although  I knew 
nothing  about  it,  this  man  knows  perfectly,”  and  he  started  out. 

On  the  way  he  noticed  a crowd  of  candidates.  Without  hesitation  he 
entered  the  enclosure.  The  subject  of  the  examination  was  : “ The  song  of  a 
man  in  mourning,  the  dance  of  a nun,  the  tears  of  an  old  man.” 

Of  all  the  students  not  one  could  derive  the  sense  of  such  a subject. 

This  man  alone  knew  it  perfectly  well,  because  he  had  had  experience  of 
those  very  things  in  his  own  house.  He  treated  the  theme  clearly  and  sent  in 
his  copy.  The  king  having  examined  the  essay  and  found  it  without  a mis- 
take, gave  the  degree  of  doctor  and  sent  for  him  to  come  to  him. 

When  they  were  in  each  other’s  presence  the  king  said  : 

“ Do  you  know  me?  It  is  I who  yesterday  recommended  you  to  present 
yourself  at  the  examination.  Lift  up  your  head  and  look.” 

Fixing  his  gaze  attentively,  the  man  recognized  who  he  was — in  effect  the 
same  person — and  manifested  his  feelings  in  appropriate  actions  of  gratitude. 

“ Go  quickly,”  said  the  king  to  him,  “ go  find  your  old  father  and  wife.” 

Forthwith,  with  high  appointment  to  office  joined  to  magnificent  treat- 
ment, the  king  recompensed  the  filial  piety  of  the  son  and  daughter-in-law. 

The  royal  renown  has  been  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation. 
In  truth,  beyond  the  goodness  of  the  king,  the  reward  bestowed  upon  the  filial 
devotion  of  these  two  married  people  is  known  to  every  one. 

Evidently  the  following  is  a story  told  by  metropolitans  to  show 
up  the  bumpkins  of  the  provinces  : 

THE  PRODIGIOUS  EFFECTS  OF  A LOOKING-GLASS. 

A young  noble  of  Kiung-sang  province  was  going  on  a journey  to  Seoul. 
Just  as  he  was  about  to  depart,  his  wife  called  him. 

“He!  say  now,  listen  to  me  a little.  I have  heard  the  mother  of  Mr. 
Kim  speak  of  a very  lovely  thing  which  looks  like  glass  and  pretty  metal. 
They  say  that  if  yon  look  in  it  you  will  see  a very  curious  thing.  You  must 
bring  me  one.” 


316 


COREA. 


“ Is  it  dear  or  cheap?  ” asked  the  husband. 

“ It  is  not  dear,”  said  she.  “ It  will  be  necessary  to  spend  some  money,  but 
if  you  heed  the  matter  at  all,  it  will  be  easy  to  pay  for  it.”  This  is  what  the 
husband  heard  as  he  set  out  for  the  capital. 

Having  finished  his  business  at  Seoul  he  was  on  the  point  of  returning, 
having  almost  lost  sight  of  his  wife’s  order.  At  last  he  recalled  it,  asked  the 
name  of  the  object  in  question,  and  made  the  purchase  of  a mirror  through  one 
of  his  friends.  In  his  eagerness  to  get  home  he  put  his  wife’s  commission  in 
his  wallet  without  even  looking  at  it.  When  he  arrived  home,  she  hastened 
to  take  out  the  mirror.  At  once  she  perceived  in  it  a woman.  Immediately 
she  began  to  weep  and  to  berate  her  husband. 

“Oh  the  villain!  not  only  to  play  himself  the  vagabond  and  debauchee 
but  to  bring  along  a concubine  ! Is  it  possible?  This  woman,  what  is  she?  ” 

The  amazed  husband  looked  in  the  mirror,  and  at  the  side  of  his  wife  per- 
ceived a man.  Unable  to  contain  his  wrath  which  made  his  face  first  dark 
and  then  blue,  he  uttered  piercing  cries. 

“ Is  this  the  conduct  for  the  wife  of  a noble.  You  have  brought  a libertine 
here,”  cried  he. 

He  was  about  to  murder  his  wife,  when  his  old  mother  hearing  the  squabble 
came  in  to  know  what  it  was.  At  sight  of  the  old  woman  the  quarrel  ceased 
on  either  side.  Pointing  at  the  mirror,  the  rivals  spoke  both  at  once.  The 
weeping  daughter-in-law  raved  about  a concubine,  the  son,  even  more  angry, 
talked  of  a paramour.  As  the  couple  had  never  quarrelled  before,  there  was 
no  way  of  accounting  for  the  mystery. 

“ Do  not  be  vexed,”  said  she,  and  looking  in  the  mirror  she  saw  a woman. 
At  once  she  broke  out  into  a laugh. 

“Is  it  because  you  see  the  old  woman,  your  neighbor,  that  you  dispute? 
The  widow  Pak  has  come  to  get  some  fire,"  said  she,  and  she  went  out  to 
speak  to  her,  but  she  was  not  there. 

Astonished,  she  called  her  husband  and  said  to  him 

“ There  is  in  the  children’s  room  a very  funny  thing.  You  can  see  in  it 
all  kinds  of  extraordinary  things  and  they  are  bickering  over  it.  Come  and 
see  a little.” 

The  venerable  gentleman  having  entered  the  room  perceived  in  the  mirror 
an  aged  man. 

“ Hello  ! the  puppy  of  the  teacher  Tsoi  has  come  to  collect  his  fees  and  I 
have  not  a penny.  That  is  not  very  nice.” 

The  people  of  the  village,  one  by  one,  two  by  two,  all  without  exception 
looked  at  the  mirror,  but  unable  to  comprehend  anything,  they  made  a tumult. 
Curious  to  know  what  should  result,  they  carried  it  to  the  magistrate.  At  sight 
of  the  instrument,  the  man  of  authority  more  astonished  than  the  others, 
called  the  policemen  and  gave  them  this  order  : 

“ A new  officer  has  arrived,  why  have  I lost  my  place?  Get  ready  men 
and  horses  for  him.” 

Really  believing  that  he  had  been  cashiered  he  prepared  to  leave,  when  a 
young  policeman  after  a careful  examination  of  the  mirror,  pointed  out  the 
manner  in  which  the  visage  of  each  individual  was  reflected. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 


PROVERBS  AND  PITHY  SAYINGS. 

Shut  off,  a3  they  are,  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  like  fish  in  a 
well,  the  Coreans  nevertheless  have  coined  a fair  share  of  homely 
wisdom,  which  finds  ready  circulation  in  their  daily  speech.  Their 
proverbs  not  only  bear  the  mint-mark  of  their  origin,  but  reflect 
truly  the  image  and  superscription  of  those  who  send  them  forth. 
Many,  indeed,  of  their  current  proverbs  and  pithy  expressions  are 
of  Japanese  or  Chinese  origin,  but  those  we  have  selected  are 
mainly  of  peninsular  birth,  and  have  the  flavor  of  the  soil. 

Do  the  Coreans  place  the  seat  of  wisdom  as  they  do  the  point 
of  vaccination,  in  the  nose  ? They  ask,  “ Who  has  a nose  three 
feet  long?”  which  means,  “If  one  is  embarrassed,  how  can  he  put 
others  at  ease?”  Evidently  they  have  a wholesome  regard  for 
that  member.  A “ nose  of  iron  ” describes  an  opinionated  man 
and  suggests  unlimited  “cheek.”  A common  expression  of  the 
Christians,  meaning  to  go  to  church  and  pray,  is  “ to  see  the  long 
nose  of  the  father  ” — that  feature  of  the  French  priest’s  face 
being  looked  upon  with  awe  as  the  seat  of  wisdom. 

Between  the  rivals,  Japan  and  China,  Corea  probably  sees  her- 
self in  this  proverb  of  the  unhappy  cur  that  wanders  boneless 
between  two  kitchens — the  cook  in  each  supposing  it  has  been 
fed  by  the  other.  “ The  dog  which  between  two  monasteries  gets 
nothing.” 

Corea’s  isolation  is  “like  a fish  in  a well,”  or  “like  a hermit 
in  the  market-place.”  They  say  of  a secluded  villager,  “ He 
knows  nothing  beyond  the  place  which  he  inhabits.” 

“One  stick  to  ten  blind  men,”  is  something  very  precious. 

“The  cock  of  the  village  in  a splendid  city  mansion,”  is  the 
bumpkin  in  the  capital. 

“To  have  a cake  in  each  hand,”  is  to  know  not  which  to  eat 
first — to  be  in  a quandary. 

“A  volcano  under  the  snow,”  is  a man  of  amiable  manners 
who  conceals  a violent  temper. 


318 


COREA. 


“ The  treasure  which  always  circulates  without  an  obstacle,”  is 
“ cash,”  or  sapeks. 

“ An  apricot-blossom  in  the  snow,”  is  said  when  something 
rare  and  marvellous  happens. 

‘‘To  blow  away  the  hair  to  see  if  there  is  a scar,”  is  to  look  for 
a mote  in  another  man’s  eye,  and  to  hunt  for  defects. 

“ As  difficult  as  the  roads  of  Thibet,”  is  evidently  a reminis- 
cence derived  from  the  ancient  Buddhist  missionaries  who  came 
from  that  region. 

“To  put  on  a silk  dress  to  travel  at  night,”  is  to  do  a good 
action  and  not  have  it  known. 

Some  pithy  sayings  show  the  local  gauge  of  sense.  “ He 
does  not  know  silver  from  lead,”  “ He  has  round  eyes,”  “ He 
can’t  tell  cheese  from  wheat,”  He  is  an  idiot.  “Doesn’t  know 
lu  from  yu.”  This  last  refers  to  two  Corean  letters,  jot  and 
tittle. 

“As  opposed  as  fire  and  water.” 

“ A buckskin  man,”  is  a man  of  no  will  or  backbone. 

“ To  have  a big  hand,”  means  to  be  liberal. 

“ A great  blue  sea,”  refers  to  something  very  difficult,  with  no 
end  to  it  and  no  way  out  of  it. 

A man  who  is  “ not  known  in  all  the  eight  coasts,”  is  an  utter 
stranger. 

A very  sick  person  is  “ a man  who  holds  disease  in  his  arms.” 

“ A bag  of  diseases,”  is  a chronic  patient. 

“Who  can  tell  in  seeing  a crow  flying  whether  it  be  male  or 
female?”  is  a question  ref ei-ring  to  the  impossible. 

The  numeral  10,000  (man)  plays  a great  part  in  proverbial 
sayings  as  “10,000  times  certain.”  Corea  is  a “land  of  10,000 
peaks.”  Certain  success  is  “ 10,000  chances  against  one.”  “To 
die  10,000  times  and  not  be  regretted,”  is  to  be  “worthy  of 
10,000  deaths.”  Ten  thousand  sorrows  means  great  grief.  A 
mountain  is  “10,000  heights  of  a man  high.”  “Ten  thousand 
strings  of  cash,”  is  a priceless  amount.  Man-nin  are  10,000  peo- 
ple— all  the  people  in  the  universe. 

“ To  lose  one’s  hands,”  is  to  make  a fiasco. 

A comet  is  an  “arrow  star.” 

“ A hundred  battles  make  a veteran.” 

Almost  as  poetical  as  the  Greek  “ anarithma  gelasma  ” (unnum- 
bered laughings)  is  this  Corean  description  of  the  sea — “ Ten 
thousand  flashings  of  blue  waves.” 


PROVERBS  AND  PITHY  SAYINGS. 


319 


“ To  lose  both  at  a time,”  is  a proverb  founded  on  a native 
love-story. 

“When  a raven  flies  from  a pear-tree,  a pear  falls” — appear- 
ances are  deceitful,  don’t  hazard  a guess. 

“If  one  lifts  a stone,  the  face  reddens.”  The  Coreans  are  fond 
of  rival  feats  of  lifting.  Heavy  stones  are  kept  for  that  purpose. 
“Results  are  proportionate  to  effort  put  forth.” 

Mosquitoes  are  lively  and  jubilantly  hungry  in  Cho-sen,  yet  it 
does  not  do  to  fight  them  with  heavy  weapons  or  “ seize  a sabre 
to  kill  a mosquito.” 

A very  poor  man  is  thus  described  : “ He  eats  only  nine  times 
in  a month,”  or  “ He  eats  only  three  times  in  ten  days.”  To  say 
he  is  in  the  depths  of  poverty  is  to  mention  the  pathetic  fact  that 
“ he  has  extinguished  his  fire  for  “ he  looks  to  the  four  winds 
and  finds  no  friend.” 

“The  right  and  left  are  different,”  is  said  of  a hypocrite  who 
does  not  speak  as  he  thinks. 

When  a man  is  not  very  bright  he  “has  mist  before  his 
eyes  ; ” or  he  “ carries  his  wits  under  his  arms  ; ” or  has  “ hid- 
den his  soul  under  his  arm-pits,”  or  he  “goes  to  the  east  and 
goes  to  the  west  when  he  is  bothered.” 

Like  Beaconsfield’s  dictum — “ Critics  are  men  who  have  failed 
in  literature  and  art,”  is  this  Corean  echo,  “Good  critic,  bad 
worker.” 

“On  entering  a village  to  know  its  usages,”  is  our  “When  in 
Rome  do  as  the  Romans  do.” 

“ To  destroy  jade  and  gravel  together,”  refers  to  indiscrimi- 
nate destruction. 

“Without  wind  and  without  cloud,”  describes  a serene  life. 

“Go  to  sea,”  is  a provincial  malediction  heavier  than  a tinker’s, 
and  worse  than  “Go  to  grass.” 

“I  am  I,  and  another  is  another,”  is  a formula  of  selfish,  and 
Corean  for  “ego  et  non  ego,”  “I  and  not  I.” 

“A  poor  horse  has  always  a thick  tail” — talent  and  capacity 
are  badly  located. 

The  large  number  of  morals  pointed  and  tales  adorned  by  the 
tiger  are  referred  to  elsewhere. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

THE  CO  RE  AN  TIGER. 


The  one  royal  quadruped  associated  with  Corea,  as  the  white 
elephant  is  with  Siam,  the  bison  with  the  United  States,  or  the 
dromedary  with  Egypt,  is  the  tiger.  Unlike  his  relative  in  India 

that  roams  in  the  hot  jun- 
gles and  along  the  river 
bottoms,  the  Corean  “king 
of  the  mountains  ” is  seen 
oftenest  in  the  snow  and 
forests  of  the  north,  rang- 
ing as  far  as  the  fiftieth 
parallel. 

Both  actually  and  ideal- 
ly the  tiger  is  the  symbol 
of  power  and  fierceness. 
The  flag  of  the  tiger-hunt- 
ers, from  the  northern 
provinces  of  Ping-an  or 
Ham-kiung,  who  60  bravely 
faced  the  rifles  of  the 
United  States  marines  and 
sailors  in  “ our  little  war 
with  the  heathen,”  in  1871, 
was  a winged  tiger  rampant, 
spitting  fire,  holding  the 
lightnings  in  his  lifted  fore-claws,  and  thus  embodying  the  powers 
of  earth,  air,  and  heaven.  It  reminds  one  of  the  winged  leopard  in 
the  vision  of  Daniel,  “After  this,  I beheld,  and  lo  another  like  a 
leopard,  which  had  upon  the  back  of  it  four  wings  of  a fowl.”  It  is 
the  tutelary  genius  of  the  descendants  of  the  aboriginal  worshippers 
of  the  tiger,  who  even  yet  cling  to  the  religion  of  the  soil.1 

1 This  flag  was  presented  by  its  captors  to  Commodore  Homer  C.  Blake,  by 
wliose  courtesy  the  writer  had  the  sketch  made  for  the  cut  given  above. 


Battle-flag  Captured  in  the  Han  Forts,  1871. 


THE  COREAN  TIGER. 


321 


The  caps  of  the  body-guard  of  the  sovereign  are  decorated 
■with  the  cheek  and  whiskers  of  the  tiger,  in  order  to  inspire 
terror  among  beholdei's.  The  Corean  beauty  carries  among  the 
jewelry  and  “ charms”  in  the  reticule  at  her  waist,  a claw  of  the 
dreaded  pern  or  tiger,  nor  can  the  hardy  mountaineer  put  in  the 
hand  of  his  bride  a more  eloquent  proof  of  his  valor  than  one  of 
these  weapons  of  a man-eater.  It  means  even  more  than  the  edel- 
weiss of  other  mountain  lands.  On  the  floors  of  the  better  class 
of  houses  the  tiger-skin  rug  not  only  adorns  the  best  room,  but 
makes  the  children’s  play-ground,  or  the  baby’s  cushion  in  lieu  of 
cradles,  which  are  unknown.  The  soft  hair  of  these  natural  rugs  is 
often  a finger  long.  Curious  toys  are  made  of  the  fur. 

The  most  prized  articles  among  the  tribute  offerings  (in  these 
days,  rather  a “bonus”  or  bribe,  than  a tax  or  humiliation)  pre- 
sented at  the  court  of  Peking,  as  of  old  at  Kioto  or  Yedo,  are 
these  gorgeous  pelts.  One  of  them,  which  the  writer  saw  recently, 
the  property  of  a Japanese  merchant,  measured  twelve  feet  long, 
exclusive  of  the  tail.  The  symbol  of  military  rank  in  old  Japan, 
as  indicative  as  our  shoulder-straps,  was  a tiger-skin  scabbard. 
Especially  was  it  honorable  to  wear  it  if  captured  with  one’s  own 
hands  on  “frontier  service.”  The  hair  of  these  animals  seems  to 
have  more  of  a woolly  quality  than  those  from  India,  while  the 
orange  tint  is  far  less  predominant,  white  taking  its  place.  The 
black  bars  are,  however,  of  equal  magnificence  with  the  tropical 
product,  and  the  tail  seems  to  be  rather  longer.  Some  idea  of  the 
great  numbers  and  awful  ravages  of  these  huge  felidce  in  the  two 
northern  provinces  of  the  Peninsular  Kingdom,  may  be  gained 
from  the  common  saying  of  the  Chinese  that  “ the  Coreans  hunt 
the  tiger  during  one  half  the  year  and  the  tigers  hunt  the  Coreans 
during  the  other  half.”  The  Coreans  retort  by  the  proverb  bom 
of  the  desolation  that  has  so  often  followed  the  presence  of  a Chi- 
nese army  on  their  soil,  whether  as  invaders  or  allies  : “ After  the 
Chinese,  the  tigers.’”  As  a single  man  can  create  the  gigantic 
spectre  of  the  Brocken,  so  in  the  national  literature  this  one  ani- 
mal seems  to  have  cast  a measureless  shadow  of  evil  influence 
upon  this  hermit  nation.  From  the  most  ancient  times  it  has 
been  an  object  of  religious  reverence.  “They  also  worshipped  the 
tiger,  which  they  looked  on  as  a god,”  was  written  of  the  people 
living  on  the  sea  of  Japan  before  the  Christian  era.  “ They  had 
also  the  many-spotted  leopard.”  A few  of  the  national  proverbs 
will  illustrate  the  amount  of  attention  which  the  subject  receives 
21 


322 


COREA. 


in  daily  life,  in  art,  religion,  and  language,  and  how  often  it  serves 
to  point  the  morals  and  adorn  the  tales  told  around  Corean 
hearths.  “ A wooden  tiger,”  is  the  ass  in  the  lion’s  skin. 

“ A broken-backed  tiger”  describes  impotent  and  raging  malice. 

“ To  give  wings  to  a tiger,”  is  to  add  shrewdness  to  force. 

“If  you  don’t  enter  the  tiger’s  lair,  you  can’t  get  her  cubs,”  is 
said  to  spur  on  the  faint  heart,  “ to  beard  the  tiger  in  his  cave.” 

“A  tiger’s  repast,”  describes  excess  in  eating,  or  the  gorging 
wrhich  follows  after  fasting.  “ To  nourish  a tiger,  and  have  him 
devour  you,”  probably  states  a common  fact  of  history,  as  well  as 
it  depicts  ingratitude.  “ If  you  tread  on  the  tail  of  a tiger,  you’ll 
know  it,”  explains  itself.  “It  is  hard  to  let  go  the  tail  of  a tiger,” 
suggests  our  “fire”  after  the  “ frying-pan,”  or  the  “other  hom 
of  the  dilemma  ;”  while  over-cautious  people  “ in  avoiding  a deer, 
meet  a tiger.”  Men  of  irascible  temper  or  violent  disposition  are 
given  the  pet  name  of  maing-ho,  which  means  an  unusually  fero- 
cious tiger  or  “ man-eater.” 

Corean  shrewdness  utilizes  the  phenomena  of  local  experience, 
and  equals  the  craft  of  the  sellers  of  Joseph.  So  common  is 
the  disappearance  of  a villager  through  visitations  of  the  tiger, 
that  the  standard  method  of  escaping  creditors  or  processes  of 
law  is  to  leave  bits  of  one’s  torn  clothes  in  the  woods,  and  then  to 
abscond.  Obliging  friends  or  relatives  quickly  report,  “ Devoured 
by  a tiger,”  and  too  often  it  is  believed  that  “Joseph  is  without 
doubt  rent  in  pieces.”  This  local  substitute  for  our  former  G.  T. 
T.,  or  the  usual  trip  to  Europe,  is  especially  fashionable  in  places 
where  “tigers  as  big  as  a mountain”  are  plentiful.  To  drive 
away  the  dreaded  kal-pem,  the  people  invoke  the  aid  of  the  tu-e',  a 
fabulous  monster,  which  is  the  enemy  of  the  tiger,  and  which  the 
latter  greatly  fears.  The  cry  of  his  name  tu-e',  tu-e,  is  believed  to 
act  as  a charm,  and  is  often  raised  by  villagers  at  night. 

In  art,  though  the  native  picture-maker  may  draw  a lion  in 
such  preposterous  shape  and  with  such  impossible  attributes  as  to 
show  at  once  that  no  living  model  was  ever  before  his  eyes,  yet  in 
those  pictures  of  the  tiger  drawn  by  Corean  artists  which  we  have 
examined,  accuracy  and  vigor  of  treatment  predominate  over 
artistic  grace. 

The  hunters  who  are  familiar  with  everv  habit,  trait  of  charac- 
ter, and  physical  detail  of  the  species,  carefully  distinguish  his 
parts  and  varieties.  Ho-rang-i  is  the  generic  name  for  the  fell's 
iigris.  Kal-pem  is  a mature  fellow  in  full  claw,  scratchy  and 


THE  COREAN  TIGER. 


823 

ferocious.  Maing-ho  is  a large  one  of  unusual  size  and  in  the  full 
rampancy  of  his  vigor.  Mil-pal  is  an  old  brute  that  can  no  longer 
scratch,  and  is  most  probably  mangy,  and  well  gouged  and  scarred 
from  numerous  household  quarrels  and  frequent  tussles  with 
rivals.  Pi-ho  is  one  agile  in  turning  tail  to  escape,  rather  than  in 
showing  teeth  to  fight — the  term  being  sometimes  applied  to  the 
leopard.  San-lol  is  a huge  fellow  that  makes  annual  visits  to  one 
place,  making  his  lightning  strike  more  than  once  in  the  same 
spot.  Siyo-ho  is  a little,  and  hal-pem  is  a female,  tiger.  A “ stone  ” 
tigress  is  sterile.  Special  terms  suggestive,  and  even  poetical,  for 
the  murders,  calamities,  or  ravages  of  the  beast,  for  traps  or 
ditches,  for  the  skin,  tail  (used  for  banners  and  spear-sheaths), 
bear’d,  moustaches,  and  the  noises  of  purring,  growling,  nocturnal 
caterwauling,  and  even  for  lashing  the  tail,  enrich  and  vivify  the 
Cho-sen  vocabulary. 

Tiger-shooting  is  not  a favorite  sport  among  the  nobles  or 
young  bloods.  Hunting  in  general  is  considered  a servile  occu- 
pation. Nobles,  except  those  of  a few  poor  families  in  the  north- 
ern provinces,  never  practise  it  as  sport.  Yet  it  is  free  to  all. 
There  are  no  game  laws,  no  proscription  of  arms,  no  game  pre- 
serves, no  seasons  interdicted. 

The  only  animal  which  it  is  forbidden  to  kill  is  the  falcon, 
whose  life  is  protected  by  stringent  laws.  From  the  most  ancient 
times  this  bird  of  the  golden  wing  has  been  held  in  high  honor. 
The  hunting-grounds  are  almost  entirely  among  the  mountains,  as 
the  valleys  are  too  densely  occupied  with  rice  and  millet  fields 
and  cultivated  soil,  to  allow  game  to  exist  or  be  hunted.  The 
chief  weapon  used  is  the  flint-lock,  imported  from  Japan.  "With 
this  a single  hunter  will  attack  the  huge  game,  although  the  ani- 
mal, when  not  immedately  killed,  leaps  right  upon  his  enemy  and 
easily  makes  him  his  prey.  When  a tiger  has  caused  great  rav- 
ages in  a district,  the  local  magistrate  calls  together  all  the 
professional  hunters  and  organizes  a hunt  in  the  mountains.  In 
such  cases,  the  chase  is  usually,  and  of  intent,  without  results  ; for 
the  skin  is  the  property  of  the  government,  and  the  official  always 
looks  out  for  himself,  coming  in  first  for  the  spoils.  Hence  it  is 
that  a government  hunt  is  usually  a farce.  Most  of  the  tiger- 
hunters  prefer  to  meet  the  royal  game  alone,  for  then  the  prized 
skin,  which  they  sell  secretly,  is  theirs.  They  eat  the  meat,  and  the 
bones  stripped  and  boiled  make  various  medicines. 

The  number  of  human  lives  lost,  and  the  value  of  property 


324 


COREA. 


destroyed  by  their  ravages,  is  so  great  as  at  times  to  depopulate 
certain  districts.  A hungry  tiger  will  often  penetrate  a village  in 
which  the  houses  are  well  secured,  and  will  prowl  around  a hovel 
or  ill-secured  dwelling,  during  several  entire  nights.  If  hunger 
presses  he  will  not  raise  the  siege  until  he  leaps  upon  the  thatched 
roof.  Through  the  hole  thus  made  by  tearing  through,  he  bounds 
upon  the  terrified  household.  In  this  case  a hand-to-claw  fight 
ensues,  in  which  the  tiger  is  killed  or  comes  off  victorious  after 
glutting  himself  upon  one  or  more  human  victims.  Rarely,  how- 
ever, need  this  king  of  Corean  beasts  resort  to  this  expedient,  for 
such  is  the  carelessness  of  the  villagers  that  in  spite  of  the  man- 
eater’s  presence  in  their  neighborhood,  they  habitually  sleep 
during  the  summer  with  the  doors  of  their  houses  wide  open,  and 
oftentimes  even  in  the  sheds  in  the  open  fields  without  dreaming 
of  taking  the  precaution  to  light  a fire. 

This  sense  of  security  is  especially  apt  to  follow  after  a grand 
hunt  successfully  pursued.  Then  the  prey  is  supposed  to  have 
been  all  killed  off  in  the  vicinity  or  driven  to  the  distant  moun- 
tains. The  Coreans  are  as  careless  of  tigers  as  the  Japanese  are  of 
fires.  Sometimes  the  tiger  is  caught  in  a snare,  without  danger 
and  by  very  simple  means.  A deep  pit  is  covered  over  with 
branches,  leaves,  and  earth.  At  the  bottom  a sharp  stake  is  set 
up.  This,  however,  is  only  rarely  used.  During  the  winter  the 
snow  is  half  frozen  over  and  strong  enough  to  bear  the  weight  of 
a man,  but  is  broken  through  by  the  paws  of  the  tiger.  The 
beast  sinks  to  the  belly,  and  not  being  able  to  move  fast,  or  es- 
cape, is  as  helpless  as  a fly  in  molasses.  It  is  then  apparently 
quite  easy  to  approach  the  creature  at  bay,  though  woe  be  to  the 
hunter  who  is  too  sure  of  his  prey.  To  be  well-equipped  for  this 
method  of  mountain  sport,  the  hunter  must  have  a short  sword, 
lance,  and  snow-shoes.  These  sel-mai,  or  racquettes,  are  of  slightly 
curved  elastic  board,  well  fitted  with  loops  and  thongs.  With 
dogs,  trained  to  the  work,  the  san-chang  (lanceman)  starts  the 
game,  and  following  up  the  trail  usually  finishes  him  wdth  a thrust 
of  his  spear  ; or,  in  bravado,  with  a sword-stroke.  This  method 
of  sport  was  the  favorite  one  pursued  by  the  Japanese  invaders. 
Though  occasionally  a man-at-arms  was  chewed  up,  or  clawed  into 
ribbons,  scores  of  glossy  skins  were  carried  back  to  Nippon  as 
trophies  by  the  veterans.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said,  to  most  Japa- 
nese children,  the  nearest  country  west  of  them  has  no  other  asso- 
ciation in  their  minds  than  as  a land  of  tigers.  At  Gensan,  the 


THE  COREAN  TIGER. 


325 


merchants  from  Tokio  had  then-  dreary  homesickness,  about  the 
time  of  their  first  New  Year’s  season  in  the  strange  land,  rather 
unpleasantly  enlivened  by  the  advent  of  several  striped  man- 
eaters.  These  promenaded  the  settlement  at  night,  and  seemed 
highly  desirous  of  tasting  a Japanese,  after  having  already  feasted 
on  several  natives.  The  prospect  of  playing  Little  Red  Riding 
Hood  to  a whiskered  man-eater  was  not  a very  pleasant  expe- 
rience, though  a possible  one  at  any  time.  A tiger  ten  feet  long 
can  easily  stow  away  two  five-feet  Japanese  without  grievous 
symptoms  of  indigestion.  For  an  untrained  hand,  even  when 
armed  with  a Winchester  breech-loader,  to  attempt  hunting  this 
Corean  emblem  of  power  is  not  attractive  sport.  The  tiger  is 
more  apt  to  hunt  the  man,  for  elephants  are  not  at  hand  to  fur- 
nish the  shelter  of  their  backs.  The  Japanese  do  not  seem  to 
hanker  after  tiger-claws  or  skins  while  in  the  flesh,  but  prefer  to 
buy  for  cash  over  their  own  counters  at  Gensan.  The  “ crop  ” of 
these  costly  pelts  averages  five  hundred  a year  at  this  one  port. 

Few  experiences  tend  more  to  develop  all  the  manly  virtues 
than  facing  a tiger  on  foot  in  his  native  wilds.  The  Coreans  know 
this,  and  in  their  lack  of  drilled  troops  capable  of  meeting  the 
soldiers  of  Europe — their  “ army  ” consisting  almost  entirely  of 
archers,  spearmen,  and  jingal-firers — they  summoned  the  tiger- 
hunters  from  Ping-an  to  fight  the  Frenchmen  of  Admiral  Roze’s 
expedition  of  1866.  Underrating  their  enemy,  the  Frenchmen,  in 
attempting  to  storm  a fortified  monastery  garrisoned  by  the  hunt- 
ers, were  completely  defeated.  When  the  marines  and  sailors  of 
the  American  naval  expedition  of  1871  assaulted  “ Fort  McKee,” 
after  it  had  been  swept  by  the  shells  of  the  fleet,  they  were 
amazed  at  the  stern  courage  of  their  dark-visaged  enemies,  who, 
with  matchlock,  spear,  and  sword,  fought  against  the  shells  and 
breech-loaders  to  the  last.  The  Americans  speak  admiringly  of 
these  brave  fellows,  so  worthy  of  their  lead  and  steel. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 


RELIGION. 

A.  careful  study  of  the  common  names  applied  to  the  moun- 
tains, rivers,  valleys,  caves,  and  other  natural  features  of  the  soil 
and  landscape  of  any  country  will  lay  bare  many  of  the  primitive 
or  hidden  beliefs  of  a people.  No  words  are  more  ancient  than  the 
aboriginal  names  given  to  the  natural  features  of  a country  amid 
which  the  childhood  of  a nation  has  been  spent.  With  changing 
customs,  civilization,  or  religion,  these  names  still  hold  their  place, 
reflecting  the  ancient,  and  often  modified,  or  even  vanished,  faith. 

Even  a casual  examination  of  the  mountain,  river,  and  other 
local  names  of  places  in  Corea  will  give  one  a tolerably  clear  out- 
line of  the  beliefs  once  fully  held  by  the  ancient  dwellers  of  this 
peninsula.  Against  the  tenets  and  influences  of  Buddhism  these 
doctrines  have  held  their  sway  over  the  minds  of  the  people  and 
are  still  the  most  deeply-seated  of  their  beliefs.  The  statements 
of  ancient  Chinese,  and  later  of  Japanese  writers,  of  foreign  cast- 
aways, and  of  the  French  missionaries  all  concur  in  showing  us 
that  Shamanism  is  the  basis  of  the  Corean’s,  and  especially  the 
northern  Corean’s,  faith.  In  the  first  historic  accounts  of  Fuyu, 
Kokorai,  and  the  Sam-han,  we  find  the  worship  of  the  spirits  of 
heaven  and  earth,  and  of  the  invisible  powers  of  the  air,  of  na- 
ture, the  guardian  genii  of  hills  and  rivers,  of  the  soil  and  grain, 
of  caves,  and  even  of  the  tiger.  They  worshipped  especially  the 
morning-star,  and  offered  sacrifice  of  oxen  to  heaven.  From  such 
scanty  notices  of  early  Corea,  especially  of  the  northern  parts,  we 
may  form  some  idea  of  the  cultus  of  the  people  before  Buddhism 
was  introduced.  From  the  reports  of  recent  witnesses,  Dutch, 
Japanese,  and  French,  and  the  evidence  of  language,  we  incline  to 
the  belief  that  the  fibres  of  Corean  superstition  and  the  actual 
religion  of  the  people  of  to-day  have  not  radically  changed  during 
twenty  centuries,  in  spite  of  Buddhism.  The  worship  of  the  spir- 
its of  heaven  and  earth,  of  mountains  and  rivers  and  caves,  of  the 


RELIGION. 


327 


morning  star,  is  still  reflected  in  tlie  names  of  these  natural  ob- 
jects and  still  continues,  in  due  form,  as  of  old,  along  with  the 
sacrifices  of  sheep  and  oxen. 

The  god  of  the  hills  is,  perhaps,  the  most  popular  deity.  The 
people  make  it  a point  to  go  out  and  worship  him  at  least  once  a 
year,  making  their  pious  trip  a picnic,  and,  as  of  old,  mixing  their 
eating  and  chinking  with  their  religion.  Thus  they  combine  piety 
and  pleasure,  very  much  as  Americans  unite  sea-bathing  and  sanc- 
tification, croquet  and  camp-meeting  holiness,  by  the  ocean  or  in 
groves.  On  mountain  tops,  which  pilgrims  climb  to  make  a 'visit 
for  religious  merit,  may  often  be  seen  a pile  of  stones  called  siong- 
wang-tang,  dedicated  to  the  god  of  the  mountain.  The  pilgrims 
carry  a pebble  from  the  foot  of  the  mountain  to  the  top.  These 
pilgrims  are  among  those  held  in  reputation  for  piety. 

The  other  popular  gods  are  very  numerous.  The  mok-sin,  the 
genii  of  the  trees,  the  god  of  rain  and  of  the  harvest,  are  all  pro- 
pitiated, but  the  robust  Corean,  blessed  with  a good  appetite, 
especially  honors  Gho-an-nim,  the  tutelary  genius  of  the  kitchen. 
To  a Corean,  the  air  is  far  from  being  empty.  It  is  thickly 
inhabited  with  spirits  and  invisbile  creatures.  Some  of  these  fig- 
ments of  imagination,  and  the  additional  powers  for  good  and 
evil,  which  the  Corean  attributes  to  animals  of  flesh  and  blood, 
are  treated  of  in  a former  chapter  on  Mythical  Zoology.  Even 
the  breezes  are  the  breath  of  spirits,  and  “ a devil’s  wind  ” is  a 
tempest  raised  by  a demon  intent  on  mischief.  When  a person 
falls  dead  suddenly,  heart-disease  is  not  thought  of ; he  has  been 
struck  by  a devil’s  arrow.  There  are  not  wanting  sorcerers  who 
seek  to  obtain  supernatural  force  by  magic,  which  they  use 
against  their  enemies  or  for  hire,  direct  the  spirits  to  wreak 
malignity  against  the  enemy  of  him  who  fees  them.  These 
sorcerers  are  social  outcasts,  and  reckoned  the  lowest  of  humanity. 

The  unlucky  days  are  three  in  each  month,  the  figure  of  ill- 
omen  being  five.  They  are  the  fifth,  fifteenth,  and  twenty-fifth. 
On  all  extraordinary  occasions  there  are  sacrifices,  ceremonies,  and 
prayers,  accompanied  with  tumultuous  celebration  by  the  popu- 
lace. The  chief  sacrifices  are  to  heaven,  earth,  and  to  the  King 
or  Emperor  of  Heaven 1 (Shang  Ti  of  the  Chinese). 

1 This  word,  pronounced  in  a slightly  different  way  in  Corean,  is  the  term 
which  Dr.  James  Legge,  in  his  “Religions  of  China,”  and  many  missionaries 
of  Reformed  Christianity,  translate  God  (Jehovah,  Theos),  but  which  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  missionaries  are  forbidden  to  use.  Dr.  Legge  holds  that  Shang 


328 


COREA. 


The  various  superstitions  concerning  the  direction  of  evil,  the 
auspicious  or  the  ill-omened  lay  of  the  land,  the  site  for  the  build- 
ing of  a house,  or  the  erection  of  a tomb,  wall  be  well  understood 
by  those  who  know  the  meaning  of  the  Chinese  term,  Fung  Shuy, 
or  the  Corean  Pung-siu.  This  system  of  superstition  has  not  only 
its  milhons  of  believers,  but  also  its  priests  or  professors,  who  live 
by  their  expertness  and  magnify  their  calling.  The  native  vocab- 
ulary relating  to  these  pretenders  and  all  their  works  is  very  pro- 
fuse. Among  the  common  sights  in  Corea  are  little  mounds  raised 
on  eligible,  propitious  places,  in  which  a pole  is  planted,  from 
which  little  bells  or  cymbals  are  hung.  These  jingled  by  the 
breeze  are  supposed  to  propitiate  the  good  spirits  and  to  ward  off 
the  noxious  influences  of  the  demons.  The  same  idea  is  expressed 
in  the  festoons  of  wind-bells  strung  on  their  pagodas  and  temples. 
Pung-siu  means  literally  “wind  and  water,”  but  in  a broad  sense  is 
a rude  cyclopaedia  of  ideas  relating  to  nature,  and  bears  nearly  the 
same  relation  to  natural  philosophy  as  astrology  does  to  astron- 
omy. Its  ideas  color  every-day  speech,  besides  having  a rich  ter- 
minology for  the  advanced  student  of  its  mysteries. 

Upon  this  system,  and  perhaps  nearly  coeval  in  origin  with  it, 
is  the  cult  of  ancestral  worship  which  has  existed  in  Chinese  Asia 
from  unrecorded  time.  Confucius  found  it  in  his  day  and  made 
it  the  basis  of  his  teachings,  as  it  had  already  been  of  the  religious 
and  ancient  documents  of  which  he  was  the  editor. 

The  Corean  cult  of  ancestor-worship  seems  to  present  no  fea- 
tures which  are  radically  distinct  from  the  Chinese.  Public  cele- 
brations are  offered  at  stated  times  to  ancestors,  and  in  every  well- 
to-do  house  will  be  found  the  gilt  and  black  tablets  inscribed  with 
the  names  of  the  departed.  Before  these  tablets  the  smoke  of 
incense  and  sacrifice  arises  daily.  In  the  temple  also  are  rooms 
for  the  preservation  of  duplicates  of  the  tablets  in  the  private 
houses  for  greater  safety.  Like  the  iron  atoms  in  his  blood,  the 
belief  in  ancestral  piety  and  worship  is  wrought  into  the  Corean’ s 
soul.  The  Christian  missionaries  meet  with  no  greater  obstacle 
to  their  tenets  and  progress  than  this  practice.  It  is  the  source, 
even  among  their  most  genuine  converts,  of  more  scandals,  lapses, 
and  renunciations,  than  are  brought  about  by  all  other  causes. 

Confucianism,  or  the  Chinese  system  of  ethics,  is,  briefly  stated, 

Ti  is  the  most  ancient  title  of  Deity  in  the  language  of  the  Chinese,  and  was 
used  by  their  ancestors  when  they  held  to  primitive  monotheism.  “ In  the 
ceremonies  at  the  altars  of  heaven  and  earth,  they  served  God  ” (Confucius). 


RELIGION. 


329 


an  expansion  of  the  root  idea  of  filial  piety.  It  is  duty  based  on 
relation.  Given  the  five  great  relations,  all  the  manifold  duties  of 
life  follow.  The  five  relations  are  that  of  king  and  subject  (prince 
and  minister),  of  parent  and  child,  of  husband  and  wife,  of  the 
elder  brother  and  the  younger  brother,  and  between  friends. 
The  cardinal  virtues  inculcated,  or  “ The  Five  Constituents  of 
Worth,”  or  constant  virtues  displayed,  according  to  the  teachings 
of  Confucius,  by  the  perfect  man  are  : 1,  Benevolence  ; 2,  Upright- 
ness of  Mind  ; 3,  Propriety  of  Demeanor  ; 4,  Knowledge  or  En- 
lightenment ; 5,  Good  Faith ; or,  Affection,  Justice,  Deference, 
Wisdom,  Confidence. 

With  the  ethics  of  the  Chinese  came  their  philosophy,  which  is 
based  on  the  dual  system  of  the  universe,  and  of  which  in  Corean, 
yum-yang  (positive  and  negative,  active  and  passive,  or  male  and 
female)  is  the  expression.  All  things  in  heaven,  earth,  and  man 
are  the  result  of  the  interaction  of  the  yum  (male  or  active  prin- 
ciple) and  the  yang  (female  or  passive  principle).  Even  the 
metals  and  minerals  in  the  earth  are  believed  to  be  produced 
through  the  yum-yang,  and  to  grow  like  plants  or  animals. 

The  Confucian  ethics,  suiting  well  a state  of  feudalism,  and 
being  ever  acceptable  to  the  possessors  of  authority,  found  con- 
genial soil  in  the  peninsla,  as  they  had  already  taken  root  in 
Kokorai.  They  nourished  the  spirit  of  filial  piety  and  personal 
loyalty,  of  feud  and  of  blood-revenge,  by  forbidding  a man  to 
live  under  the  same  heaven  with  the  murderer  of  his  father  or 
master.  Notwithstanding  the  doctrines  and  loftier  morals  of 
Buddha,  the  Chinese  ethics  and  ancestor-worship,  especially  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  peninsula,  underlaid  the  outward  ad- 
herence of  the  people  to  the  religion  of  the  Enlightened  One. 
As  the  average  Christian,  in  spite  of  the  spirit  of  Jesus  and  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount,  is  very  apt  to  base  his  behavior  and  legal 
procedure  on  the  code  of  Justinian,  so  the  Corean,  though  he 
may  believe  in  Fo  (Buddha),  practises  after  the  rules  of  Kong-ja 
(Confucius). 

Official  sacrifices  are  regulated  by  the  government  and  are 
offered  up  publicly  at  the  national  festivals.  Something  of  the 
regulated  subordination  in  vogue  among  the  Chinese  prevails  in 
Cho-sen  when  ancestors  are  honored.  High  officials  may  sacrifice 
to  three  ancestors,  the  gentry  only  to  father  and  grandfather,  and 
the  common  people  to  father  only.  In  every  province,  capital,  and 
city  ranked  as  Tai-mu-kan,  there  are  buildings  containing  statues 


330 


COREA. 


of  Confucius  and  his  thirty-two  disciples,  which  are  maintained 
at  the  public  expense. 

Confucianism  overspreads  the  whole  peninsula,  but  during  the 
prevalence  of  Buddhism,  from  the  fourth  to  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, was  probably  fully  studied  and  practised  only  by  the  learned 
classes.  Under  the  present  dynasty,  or  from  the  fifteenth  century, 
the  religion  of  China  has  been  both  the  official  and  popular  cult 
of  Cho-sen,  long  ago  reaching  the  point  of  bigotry,  intolerance, 
and  persecution.  Taoism  seems  to  he  little  studied. 

In  Corean  mouths  Buddha  becomes  Pul,  and  his  “ way  ” or 
doctrine  Pul-to  or  Pul-chie.  Introduced  into  Hiaksai  in  the  fourth, 
and  into  Shinra  in  the  sixth  century,  the  new  faith  from  India 
made  thorough  conquest  of  the  southern  half  of  the  peninsula,  but 
has  only  partially  leavened  the  northern  portion,  where  the  grosser 
heathenism  prevails.  The  palmy  days  of  Corean  Buddhism  were 
during  the  era  of  Korai  (from  905-1392,  a.d.).  The  missionary 
work  had  been  accomplished,  the  reigning  dynasty  were  pro- 
fessors and  defenders  of  the  faith,  and  for  these  four  centuries  it 
was  the  religion  of  the  state.  The  few  surviving  monuments  of 
this  era  of  splendor  are  the  grand  pagodas,  monasteries,  and  tem- 
ples that  are  found,  especially  in  the  southern  provinces.  The 
profusion  of  legal  and  ecclesiastical  terms  in  the  language  which 
relate  to  lands  set  apart  to  provide  revenues  for  the  temples,  and 
to  their  boundaries  and  rents,  and  the  privileges  of  monks  and 
priests,  are  more  probably  the  relics  of  a past  time,  being  only 
verbal  shells  and  husks  of  what  were  once  fruit  and  kernel. 

Until  the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth  century  the  Japanese  Buddhists 
looked  to  the  “ Treasure-land  of  the  West,”  as  they  termed  Cho- 
sen, for  spiritual  and  even  pecuniary  aid  in  their  ecclesiastical 
enterprises.  The  special  features  of  many  renowned  Japanese  tem- 
ples, libraries,  collections  of  books,  images,  altar  furniture,  etc., 
are  of  Corean  origin.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  old  seats 
of  the  faith  in  Kioto.  Images  in  gold,  gilt  wood,  bronze,  and 
some  fire-resisting  material — perhaps  platinum — are  known  and 
duly  certified  by  genuine  documents  in  temples  in  other  cities 
In  a building  at  Kamakura  is  a copy  of  the  Buddhist  canon  in  a 
revolving  library,  said  to  have  been  obtained  by  Sanetomo  from 
Corea  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Among  the  amusing  passages  in 
the  letters  from  Ashikaga  in  Kamakura,  two  hundred  years  later, 
is  the  hint  given  to  the  king  of  Corea  that  a contribution  in  aid 
of  the  repair  of  certain  Japanese  temples  would  be  acceptable. 


RELIGION. 


331 


The  site  and  general  surroundings  of  Corean  Buddhist  temples 
and  monasteries  greatly  resemble  those  of  China  and  Japan.  They 
are  often  situated  on  hills,  rising  ground,  and  even  high  moun- 
tains, and  walled  round  by  lofty  and  venerable  trees  which  seem 
to  inspire  awe  and  veneration  in  the  worshipper,  besides  acting  as 
extinguishers  to  sparks  drifted  from  neighboring  fires.  An  impos- 
ing gateway  is  usually  built  at  some  distance  before  the  temple, 
with  massive  curved  roof  of  tiles,  and  flanked  by  a wall  of  ma- 
sonry which,  in  its  upper  part,  consists  of  plaster  tiled  at  the  top. 
On  the  frieze  of  the  portal,  the  name  of  the  temple  is  inscribed  in 
large  Chinese  characters.  Sanskrit  letters  or  monograms  are  occa- 
sionally seen.  Under  a roofed  shed  in  front  hangs  the  drum  on 
which  the  bonze  beats  the  hours  for  prayer,  or  of  the  clock.  On 
the  other  side  stands  the  coffer  for  the  cash  of  the  faithful,  or  a 
well  for  the  manual  ablutions  of  pious  worshippers.  Boards,  on 
which  are  written  the  names  of  those  who  have  contributed  money 
to  the  temple,  are  suspended  near  by,  and  the  thatched  houses  of 
the  neophytes  and  bonzes  are  close  at  hand. 

The  idols  seen  in  a Corean  temple  are  the  same  as  those  found 
throughout  Buddhist  Asia.  The  chief  is  that  of  Shaka  Muni,  or 
Buddha,  the  founder  of  the  religion.  In  their  sculpture  and  artis- 
tic treatment  of  this,  the  central  figure  of  their  pantheon,  the 
image-carvers  of  the  different  countries  do  not  greatly  vary,  ad- 
hering strictly  to  their  traditions.  The  sage  in  Nirvana  sits  on  his 
knees  with  the  soles  of  his  feet  turned  upward  to  the  face.  His 
hands  touch,  thumb  to  thumb,  and  finger  to  finger.  The  folds  of 
the  robes,  the  round  bead-like  caste  mark  of  his  forehead,  the 
snails  on  his  crown — which  tradition  says  came  out  to  shelter  his 
head  from  the  rays  of  the  sun — and  the  lop  or  pierced  ears,  are 
substantially  the  same  as  those  seen  on  idols  from  India,  Siam,  and 
Thibet.  The  eye  is  only  slightly  oblicfue,  and  the  ear-lobes  are 
made  but  slightly  bulbous,  to  satisfy  the  tastes  of  worshippers  in 
Chinese  Asia.  The  throne,  consisting  of  the  frilly  opened  calyx  of 
a lotus  flower — the  symbol  of  eternity — with  the  petals  around  the 
base  and  seed-holes  open,  is  the  same. 

In  the  representation  of  local  deities  the  artist  asserts  his 
patriotism  and  displays  his  own  taste.  In  the  various  countries 
overrun  by  Buddhism,  the  indigenous  heroes,  sages,  and  gods 
have  been  renamed  and  accepted  by  the  Buddhists  as  avatars  or 
incarnations  of  Buddha  to  these  countries  before  the  advent  of 
the  teachers  of  “ the  true  religion.”  There  are  also  saints  and 


332 


COREA. 


subordinate  magnates  in  tlie  Buddhist  gallery  of  worshipped 
worthies,  with  whose  effigies  the  artist  does  not  scruple  to  take 
certain  liberties.  One  can  easily  recognize  an  idol  of  Chinese, 
Corean,  Siamese,  or  Japanese  manufacture,  though  all  bear  the 
same  name.  The  god  of  war  in  Cho-sen  holds  the  double-bladed 
sword,  with  its  tasselled  cord,  and  wears  the  Chino-Corean  armor 
and  helmet.  In  the  aureole  round  the  head  are  three  fiery  revolv- 
ing thunder-clouds.  On  the  battle-flags  captured  by  the  Amer- 
ican forces  in  1871  were  painted  or  embroidered  the  protecting 
deities  of  those  who  fought  under  them.  One  of  these,  whether 
representing  a Buddha,  as  seems  most  probable,  or,  as  is  possible, 
some  local  hero — perhaps  Dan  Kun  or  Ki  Tsze — deified,  rides  on 
one  of  the  curious  little  ponies,  stunted  and  piebald,  of  Ham- 
kiung,  with  which,  even  in  ancient  times,  one  could  ride  under  a 
fruit  tree.  Evidently  it  would  have  been  safer  for  Absalom  in 
Corea  than  in  woody  Palestine. 

The  tutelary  god  on  the  stunted  piebald  horse  is  dressed  in 
the  peculiar  winged  head-dress  and  frilled  collar  which  travellers 
on  Ham-kiung  soil  noticed  fifteen  centuries  ago.  His  armor  is  in 
scales,  or  wrought  in  the  “ wave-pattern  ” characteristic  of  Corean 
art.  His  shoes  and  saddle  are  of  the  Chinese  type.  He  rides 
among  the  conventional  clouds,  which  in  the  native  technique,  are 
different  from  those  of  either  China  or  Japan.  Evidently  the  Budd- 
ha and  saints  of  Shaka  Muni  are  portrayed  by  the  native  artist 
according  to  the  strict  canons  of  orthodoxy,  while  in  dealing  with 
indigenous  deities,  artistic  licence  and  local  color  have  free  play. 
Most  of  the  artists  and  sculptors  of  temple  work  are  priests 
or  monks.  The  principal  idols  are  of  brass,  bronze,  or  gilded 
wood,  the  inferior  sorts  are  of  stone.  The  priests  dress  just 
like  the  Japanese  bonzes.  They  attend  the  sick  or  dying,  but 
have  little  to  do  with  th®  burial  of  the  dead,  owing  to  the  prev- 
alence of  the  Pung-sui  superstition,  to  which  a Corean  in  life  and 
in  death  is  a bond-slave.  This  all-powerful  disease  of  the  intellect 
is  the  great  corrupter  of  Corean  Buddhism,  many  of  its  grossest 
ideas  being  grafted  into,  or  flourishing  as  parasites  on  a once 
pure  faith. 

In  its  development  Corean  Buddhism  has  frequently  been  a 
potent  influence  in  national  affairs,  and  the  power  of  the  bonzes 
has  at  times  been  so  great  as  to  practically  control  the  court  and 
nullify  decrees  of  the  king.  With  the  Fuyu  race — that  is  in  Cho- 
sen and  Nihon — the  history  of  Buddhism  has  a decidedly  mili- 


RELIGION. 


333 


tary  cast.  During  the  first  centuries  of  its  sway  in  the  peninsula 
the  ablest  intellects  were  fed  and  the  ablest  men  were  developed 
by  it,  so  that  it  was  the  most  potent  factor  in  Corea’s  civilization. 
Over  and  over  again  have  the  politcial  and  social  revolutions  been 
led  by  Buddhist  priests,  who  have  proved  agitators  and  warriors 
as  well  as  recluses  and  students.  Possessing  themselves  of  learn- 
ing, they  have  made  their  presence  at  court  a necessity.  Here 
they  have  acted  as  scribes,  law-givers,  counsellors,  and  secretaries. 
Often  they  have  been  the  conservers  of  patriotism.  The  shaven- 
pated  priest  has  ever  been  a standard  character  in  the  glimpses 
of  Corean  history  which  we  are  allowed  to  catch. 

Not  always  has  this  influence  been  exerted  for  good,  for  once 
possessed  of  influence  at  court,  they  have  not  scrupled  to  use  it  for 
the  purpose  of  aggrandizing  their  sects.  Tradition  tells  of  high 
nobles  won  from  the  pleasures  of  the  palace  to  the  seclusion  of 
the  cloisters,  and  even  of  Corean  queens  renouncing  the  bed  of 
their  royal  spouses  to  accept  the  vows  of  the  nuns.  As  in  Japan, 
the  frequent  wars  have  developed  the  formation  of  a clerical 
militia,  not  only  able  to  garrison  and  defend  their  fortified  monas- 
teries but  even  to  change  the  fortune  of  war  by  the  valor  of  their 
exploits  and  the  power  of  their  commisariat.  There  seems  to  be 
three  distinct  classes  or  grades  of  bonzes.  The  student  monks 
devote  themselves  to  learning,  to  study,  and  to  the  composition  of 
books  and  the  Buddhist  ritual,  the  tai-sa  being  the  abbot.  The 
jung  are  mendicant  and  travelling  bonzes,  who  solicit  alms  and 
contributions  for  the  erection  and  maintenance  of  the  temples  and 
monastic  establishments.  The  military  bonzes  ( siung  kun)  act  as 
garrisons,  and  make,  keep  in  order,  and  are  trained  to  use,  weapons. 
Many  of  their  monasteries  are  built  on  the  summit  or  slopes  of 
high  mountains,  to  which  access  is  to  be  gained  only  with  the 
greatest  difficulty  up  the  most  rocky  and  narrow  passages.  Into 
these  fastnesses  royal  and  noble  professors  of  the  faith  have  fled 
in  time  of  persecution,  or  pious  kings  have  retired  after  abdica- 
tion. In  time  of  war  they  serve  to  shelter  refugees.  It  was 
in  attacking  one  of  these  strongholds,  on  Kang-wa  Island,  in 
1866,  that  the  French  marines  were  repulsed  with  such  fearful 
loss. 

Many  temples  throughout  the  country  have  been  erected  by 
the  old  kings  of  Korai  or  by  noblemen  as  memorials  of  events, 
or  as  proofs  of  their  devotion.  The  building  of  one  of  these  at 
great  expense  and  the  endowment  of  others  from  government 


334 


COREA. 


funds,  sometimes  happens,  even  during  the  present  dynasty,  as  was 
the  case  in  1865,  when  the  regent  was  influenced  by  the  bonzes. 
He  rebuilt  the  temple  in  an  unparalleled  style  of  magnificence, 
and  made  immense  presents  to  other  temples  out  of  the  public 
treasury.  It  has  been  by  means  of  these  royal  bounties,  and  the 
unremitting  collection  of  small  sums  from  the  people,  that  the 
bonzes  have  amassed  the  vast  property  now  held  by  them  in  eccle- 
siastical edifices,  lands,  and  revenues.  Some  of  these  mountain 
monasteries  are  large  and  stately,  with  a wealth  of  old  books, 
manuscripts,  liturgical  furniture,  and  perhaps  even  yet  of  money 
and  land.  The  great  monastery  of  Tong-to-sa,  between  Kiung- 
sang  and  Chulla,  is  noted  for  its  library,  in  which  will  be  found 
the  entire  sacred  canon.  The  probabilities  of  American  or  Eu- 
ropean scholars  finding  rare  treasures  in  the  form  of  Sanskrit 
MSS.  in  this  unsearched  field  are  good,  since  the  country  is  now 
opened  to  men  of  learning  from  Christendom.  As  a rule,  the  com- 
pany of  monks  does  not  number  over  ten,  twenty,  or  thirty,  re- 
spectively, in  the  three  grades  of  temples.  Hamel  tells  us  that 
they  live  well  and  are  jolly  fellows,  though  his  opinion  was  some- 
what biased,  since  he  remarks  that  “as  for  religion,  the  Coreans 
have  scarcely  any.  . . . They  know  nothing  of  preaching 

or  mysteries,  and,  therefore,  have  no  disputes  about  religion.” 
There  were  swarms  of  monastics  who  were  not  held  in  much 
respect.  He  describes  the  festivals  as  noisy,  and  the  people’s 
behavior  at  them  as  boisterous.  Incense  sticks,  or  “joss”  per- 
fumery, seemed  very  much  in  vogue.  He  bears  witness  to  their 
enjoyment  in  natural  scenery,  and  the  delightful  situation  of  the 
famous  temples. 

Even  at  the  present  day,  Buddhist  priests  are  made  high 
officers  of  the  government,  governors  of  provinces,  and  military 
advisers.  Like  as  in  Japan,  Buddhism  inculcates  great  kindness 
to  animals — the  logical  result  of  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration 
of  souls,  and  all  who  kill  are  under  its  ban.  Though  beef,  pork, 
and  mutton  are  greedily  eaten  by  the  people,  the  trade  of  the 
butcher  is  considered  the  most  degraded  of  all  occupations,  and 
the  butchers  and  leather  dressers  form  a caste  below  the  level  of 
humanity,  like  the  Etas  in  Japan.  They  are  beneath  the  slaves. 
They  must  live  in  villages  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  people,  and 
are  debarred  from  receiving  water,  food,  fire,  or  shelter  at  the 
hands  of  the  people.  The  creation  of  this  class  of  Corean  pariahs 
and  the  exclusion  of  these  people  from  the  pale  of  recognized  so- 


RELIGION. 


335 


ciety  is  the  direct  result  of  the  teachings  of  the  bonzes.  Like  the 
Chinese,  and  unlike  the  Japanese  bonze,  the  devotees  will  often 
mutilate  themselves  in  the  frenzy  of  their  orgies,  in  order  to  gain 
a character  for  holiness  or  in  fulfilment  of  a vow.  One  of  these 
bonzes,  appointed  by  the  magistrate  to  dispute  publicly  with  a 
Christian,  had  lost  four  fingers  for  the  sake  of  manufacturing  a 
reputation.  The  ceremony  of  pul-tatta,  or  “receiving  the  fire,”  is 
undergone  upon  taking  the  vows  of  the  priesthood.  A moxa  or 
cone  of  burning  tinder  is  laid  upon  the  man’s  arm,  after  the  hair 
has  been  shaved  off.  The  tiny  mass  is  then  lighted,  and  slowly 
burns  into  the  flesh,  leaving  a painful  sore,  the  scar  of  which 
remains  as  a mark  of  holiness.  This  serves  as  initiation,  but  if 
vows  are  broken,  the  torture  is  repeated  on  each  occasion.  In  this 
manner,  ecclesiastical  discipline  is  maintained. 

In  the  nunneries  are  two  kinds  of  female  devotees,  those  who 
shave  the  head  and  those  who  keep  their  locks.  The  po-sal  does  not 
part  with  her  hair,  and  her  vows  are  less  rigid.  Hamel  mentions 
two  convents  in  Seoul,  one  of  which  was  for  maidens  of  gentle 
birth,  and  the  other  for  women  of  a lower  social  grade. 

Excepting  in  its  military  phases,  the  type  of  Corean  Buddhism 
approaches  that  of  China  rather  than  of  Japan.  In  both  these 
countries  its  history  is  that  of  decay,  rather  than  of  improvement, 
and  it  would  be  difficult  indeed  for  Shaka  Muni  to  recognize  the 
faith  which  he  founded,  in  the  forms  wliich  it  has  assumed  in 
Cho-sen  and  Nippon ; nor  did  it  ever  succeed  in  making  the 
thorough  missionary  conquest  of  the  former,  which  it  secured  in 
the  latter,  country.  The  priority  of  the  Confucian  teachings  and 
the  thorough  indoctrination  of  the  people  in  them,  the  nearness 
of  China,  the  close  copying  of  Chinese  manners,  customs,  and  ma- 
terialistic spirit,  the  frequency  of  Chinese  conquests,  and  perhaps 
the  presence  of  an  indigenous  religion  even  more  strongly  marked 
than  that  of  Shinto  in  Japan,  were  probably  the  potent  reasons 
why  Buddhism  never  secured  so  strong  a hold  on  the  Corean  in- 
tellect or  affections  as  upon  the  Japanese.  Nevertheless,  since 
Buddhism  has  always  been  largely  professed,  and  especially  if 
Confucianism  be  considered  simply  an  ethical  system  and  not  a 
religion  proper,  Corea  may  be  classed  among  Buddhist  countries. 
Among  the  surprises  of  history  is  the  fact  that,  in  1876,  the  Shin, 
or  Reformed  sect  of  Japanese  Buddhists,  sent  their  missionaries 
to  Corea  to  preach  and  convert.  Among  their  conquests  was  a 
young  native  of  ability,  who  came  to  Kioto,  in  1878,  to  study  the 


336 


COREA. 


reformed  Buddhism,  and  who  later  returned  to  preach  among  his 
own  people.  In  1880  five  more  young  Coreans  entered  the  Shin 
theological  school  in  Kioto,  and  a new  and  splendid  Shin  temple, 
dedicated  to  Arnida  Buddha,  has  been  built  at  Gensan.  Evidently 
this  vigorous  sect  is  resolutely  endeavoring,  not  only  to  recoup 
the  losses  which  Christianity  has  made  in  its  ranks  in  Japan,  but 
is  determined  to  forestall  the  exertions  of  Christian  missionaries 
in  the  peninsula. 

So  thoroughly  saturated  is  the  Corean  mind  with  Chinese  philosophy 
(p.  329)  that  when  of  necessity  a national  emblem  or  flag  must  be  made,  the 
symbol  expressive  of  the  male  and  female,  or  active  and  passive  principles 
dominating  the  universe,  was  selected.  Though  Corea  excels  in  the  variety 
of  her  bunting  and  the  wealth  of  symbolism  upon  her  flags  and  streamers,  yet 
the  national  flag,  as  now  floated  from  her  ships,  custom-houses,  and  Legations 
in  the  United  States  and  Europe,  has  an  oblong  field,  in  the  centre  of  which 
are  the  two  comma-shaped  symbols,  red  and  black,  of  the  two  universal 
principles.  In  each  of  the  four  corners  of  the  flag  is  one  of  the  Pak-wa  or 
eight  diagrams,  consisting  of  straight  and  broken  lines,  which  Fu-hi,  the  re- 
puted founder  of  Chinese  civilization,  read  upon  the  scroll  on  the  back  of  the 
dragon-horse  which  rose  out  of  the  Yellow  River,  and  on  the  basis  of  which 
he  invented  the  Chinese  system  of  writing.  In  these  diagrams  the  learned 
men  in  Chinese  Asia  behold  the  elements  of  all  metaphysical  knowledge,  and 
the  clue  to  all  the  secrets  of  nature,  and  upon  them  a voluminous  literature, 
containing  divers  systems  of  divination  and  metaphysical  exegesis,  has  been 
written.  The  eight  diagrams  may  be  expanded  to  sixty -four  combinations  i 
or,  are  reducible  to  four,  and  these  again  to  their  two  primaries.  The  con- 
tinuous straight  line,  symbol  of  the  yum  principle,  corresponds  to  light, 
heaven,  masculinity,  etc.  The  broken  line  symbolizes  the  yang  principle, 
corresponding  to  darkness,  earth,  femininity,  etc.  These  two  lines  signify 
the  dual  principle  at  rest,  but  when  curved  or  comma-shaped,  betoken  the 
ceaseless  process  of  revolution  in  which  the  various  elements  or  properties 
of  nature  indicated  by  the  diagrams  mutually  extinguish  or  give  birth  to  one 
another,  thus  producing  the  phenomena  of  existence. 

Professor  Terrien  de  Lacouperie  sees  in  the  Pak-wa  a link  between  Baby- 
lonia and  China,  a very  ancient  system  of  phonetics  or  syllabary  explaining 
the  pronunciation  of  the  old  Babylonian  characters  and  their  Chinese  deriva- 
tives. It  is  not  likely  that  Morse  derived  the  idea  of  his  magneto-electric 
telegraphic  alphabet  from  the  Chinese  diagrams.  Possibly  the  Corean  literati 
who  suggested  the  design  for  a national  flag  intended  to  show,  in  the  brightly 
colored  and  actively  revolving  germs  of  life  set  prominently  in  the  centre,  and 
contrasted  with  the  inert  and  immovable  straight  lines  in  the  background  of  the 
corners,  the  progressive  Corea  of  the  present  and  future  as  contrasted  with 
Corea  of  the  past  and  her  hermit-like  existence.  Significantly,  and  with  un- 
conscious irony  of  the  Virginia  advertisers,  the  new  Corean  flag  was  first  pub- 
lished to  the  Western  world  at  large  on  the  covers  of  cigarette  packages.  For 
centuries  the  energies  of  Coreans  have  been  wasted  in  tobacco  smoke,  and  the 
era  of  national  decay  is  almost  synchronous  with  the  introduction  of  tobacco. 


CHAPTER  XXXYIII. 


EDUCATION  AND  CULTURE. 

Corea  received  her  culture  from  China,  and  gave  it  freely  to 
Japan.  If  we  may  believe  the  doubtful  story  of  Ki  Tsze,  then  the 
Coreans  have  possessed  letters  and  writing,  or,  what  is  the  equiva- 
lent thereto,  they  have  had  “civilization,”  during  three  thousand 
years.  It  is  certain  that  since  about  the  opening  of  the  Christian 
era,  the  light  of  China’s  philosophy  has  shone  steadily  among 
Corean  scholars.  Japanese  early  tradition — unworthy  of  credence 
in  the  matter  of  chronology — claims  that  literature  was  brought 
to  Nippon  as  early  as  the  period  157-30  b.c.  The  legend  of  Jingu 
bringing  back  books  and  manuscrpts  from  Shinra  is  more  prob- 
able ; while  the  coming  of  Wani  from  Hiaksai,  to  teach  the  Chi- 
nese characters  and  expound  the  classics,  is  a historic  fact,  though 
the  real  date  may  be  uncertain,  or  later  than  the  accepted  one, 
which  is  285  a.d.  While  the  Kokorai  people  may  have  brought 
letters  with  them,  as  they  migrated  southward,  in  Hiaksai  the 
Confucian  analects  were  not  studied  until  the  fourth  century, 
when  official  recognition  of  education  was  made  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  Hanken  as  master  of  Chinese  literature.  This  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  importation  of  learning  into  the  peninsula.  It 
was  so  in  the  sense  of  being  formally  introduced  from  China  into 
the  country  south  of  the  Ta-tong  River. 

As  in  most  of  the  Asiatic  countries,  into  which  Chinese  culture 
penetrated,  popular  education  was  for  centuries  a thing  un thought 
of.  Learning  was  the  privilege  of  a few  courtiers,  who  jealously 
guarded  it  from  the  vulgar,  as  an  accomplishment  for  those  about 
the  royal  person,  or  in  the  noble  families.  The  classics  and  eth- 
ical doctrines  seem  in  every  case  to  have  penetrated  the  nations 
surrounding  the  Middle  Kingdom,  and  formed  the  basis  of  courtly 
and  aristocratic  education. 

Buddhism  furnished  the  popular  or  democratic  element,  which 
brought  learning  to  the  lower  strata  of  society.  Neophytes  were 
22 


338 


COREA. 


usually  taken  from  the  humbler  classes,  and  thus  culture  was 
diffused.  Even  the  idols,  pictures,  and  scrolls,  with  the  explana- 
tions and  preaching  in  the  vernacular,  served  to  instruct  the  peo- 
ple and  lift  their  thoughts  out  of  the  rut  of  every-day  life — a 
result  which  is  in  itself  true  education.  Wherever  Buddhism 
penetrated,  there  was  more  or  less  literature  published  in  the 
speech  of  the  unlearned,  and  often  the  first  books  for  the  people 
were  works  on  religion.  China  gave  her  language  and  ideographs ; 
India  sent  Sanskrit  and  phonetic  letters,  from  which  syllabaries 
or  alphabets  were  constructed,  not  only  for  vernacular  writing  and 
printing,  but  as  aids  to  the  easier  apprehension  and  more  popular 
understanding  of  the  tenets  of  Confucius. 

The  Corean  syllabary  seems  to  have  been  first  invented  by 
Chul-chong,  one  of  the  ministers  at  the  court  of  the  king  of  Shinra, 
in  the  seventh  century.  This  was  the  Nido ; like  the  kana  of  the 
Japanese,  purely  a collection  of  syllables  and  not  a true  alphabet. 
The  Nido  was  made  by  giving  to  some  of  the  commoner  Chinese 
characters  a phonetic  value,  though  the  idea  of  having  a vernacular 
system  of  writing  was  most  probably  suggested  by  the  Sanskrit 
letters, 1 some  of  which  accurately  represented  Corean  sounds.  The 
true  alphabet  of  the  Coreans,  called  Unmun  (common  language), 
-was  invented  by  a Buddhist  priest  named  Syel-chong,  or  Sye'- 
chong,  who  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  ablest  scholars  in  the  literary 
annals  of  Corea.  The  “Grammaire  Coreene”  states  that  this  took 
place  under  the  dynasty  of  Wang,  at  Sunto,  “toward  the  end  of  the 
eighth  or  ninth  century  of  the  Christian  era.”  This  is  a palpable 
mistake,  as  the  dynasty  of  Wang  was  not  established  at  Sunto  until 
the  tenth  century.  Mr.  Aston,  whose  researches  are  based  on  the 
statements  of  Corean  and  Japanese  writers,  believes  that  the  Un- 
mun, or  true  Corean  alphabet,  “ was  invented  not  earlier  than  the 
first  half  of  the  fifteenth  century.”  Yet,  in  spite  of  their  national 
system  of  writing,  the  influence  of  the  finished  philosophy  and  cul- 
ture of  China,  both  in  form  and  spirit,  has  been  so  great  that  the 
hopelessness  of  producing  a copy  equal  to  the  original  became  at 
once  apparent  to  the  Corean  mind.  Stimulating  to  the  receptive 


1 Dr.  D.  Bethune  McCartee,  a well-known  American  scholar,  writing  on 
Riu  Kiu,  says  : “ The  art  of  spelling  was  invented  neither  by  the  Chinese  nor 
by  the  Japanese.  Its  introduction  into  both  these  countries  (and,  as  we  are 
convinced,  into  Corea  as  well)  was  the  result  of  the  labors  of  . . . the 
early  Buddhist  missionaries.  In  all  the  three  countries  . . . the  system 

of  spelling  is  most  undoubtedly  of  Sanskrit  origin.” 


EDUCATION  AND  CULTURE. 


339 


intellect,  it  has  been  paralyzing  to  all  originality.  The  culture  of 
their  native  tongue  has  been  neglected  by  Corean  scholars.  The 
consequence  is,  that  after  so  many  centuries  of  national  life,  Cho- 
sen possesses  no  literature  worthy  of  the  name.  Only  in  rare  cases 
are  native  books  translated  into  either  Chinese  or  Japanese. 

At  present,  Corean  literary  men  possess  a highly  critical 
knowledge  of  Chinese.  Most  intelligent  scholars  read  the  classics 
with  ease  and  fluency.  Penmanship  is  an  art  as  much  prized  and 
as  widely  practised  as  in  Japan,  and  reading  and  writing  con- 
stitute education.  From  the  fifth  to  the  seventeenth  century  the 
Corean  youth  of  gentle  blood  went  to  Nanking  to  receive  or  com- 
plete their  education.  Since  Peking  has  been  the  Chinese  capital 
(under  the  Mongols  from  1279,  and  under  the  Ming  emperors 
from  1410)  few  young  men  have  gone  abroad  to  study  until  within 
the  last  year,  when  numbers  of  Corean  lads  have  entered  the 
naval,  military,  and  literary  schools  of  the  imperial  government. 

The  practical  democratic  element  pervading  China  was  long 
absent  from  the  nations  which  were  her  pupils  and  vassals.  Of 
all  these  borrowers,  Corea  has  most  closely  imitated  her  teacher. 
She  fosters  education  by  making  scholastic  ability,  as  tested  in 
the  literary  examination,  the  basis  of  appointment  to  office.  This 
“Civil  Service  Reform”  was  established  in  Cho-sen  by  the  now 
ruling  dynasty  early  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Education  in  Corea 
is  public,  and  encouraged  by  the  government  only  in  this  sense, 
that  it  is  made  the  road  to  government  employ  and  official  pro- 
motion. By  instituting  literary  examinations  for  the  civil  and 
military  service,  and  nominally  opening  them  to  all  competitors, 
and  filling  all  vacancies  with  the  successful  candidates,  there  is 
created  and  maintained  a constant  stimulus  to  culture. 

Corean  culture  resembles  that  in  mediaeval  Europe.  It  is 
extra-vernacular.  It  is  in  Latin — the  Latin  of  Eastern  Asia — the 
classic  tongue  of  the  oldest  of  living  empires.  This  literary  instru- 
ment of  the  learned  is  not  the  speech  of  the  modern  Chinamen,  but 
the  condensed,  vivid,  artificial  diction  of  the  books,  which  the  Chi- 
nese cannot  and  never  did  speak,  and  which  to  be  fully  understood 
must  be  read  by  the  eye  of  the  mind.  The  accomplished  scholar 
of  Seoul  who  writes  a polished  essay  in  classic  style  packs  his  sen- 
tences with  quotable  felicities,  choice  phrases,  references  to  his- 
tory, literary  prismatics,  and  kaleidoscopic  patches  picked  out 
here  and  there  from  the  whole  range  of  ancient  Chinese  literature, 
and  imbeds  them  into  a mosaic — smooth,  brilliant,  ehaste,  and  a 


340 


COREA. 


perfect  unity.  This  is  the  acme  of  style.  So  in  the  Corean  mind, 
the  wise  saws  and  ancient  instances,  the  gnomic  wisdom,  quota- 
tions and  proverbs,  political  principles,  precedents,  historical 
examples,  and  dynasties,  are  all  Chinese,  and  ancient  Chinese. 
His  heaven,  his  nature,  his  history,  his  philosophy,  are  those  of 
Confucius,  and  like  the  Chinaman,  he  looks  down  with  infinite 
contempt  upon  the  barbarians  of  Christendom  and  their  heterodox 
conceptions  of  the  universe.  Meanwhile  his  own  language,  litera- 
ture, and  history  are  neglected.  The  Corean  child  begins  his 
education  by  learning  by  voice,  eye,  and  pen,  the  simple  and  beau- 
tiful native  alphabet  of  twenty-five  letters,  and  the  syllabary  of 
one  hundred  and  ninety  or  more  combinations  of  letters.  He 
leams  to  read,  and  practises  writing  in  both  the  book  or  square 
style  and  the  script  form  or  running  hand.  The  syllabary  is  not 
analyzed,  but  committed  to  memory  from  sight  and  sound.  Spell- 
ing is  nearly  an  unknown  art,  as  the  vowel  changes  and  require- 
ments of  euphony — so  numerous  as  to  terrify  the  foreign  student 
of  Corean — are  quickly  acquired  by  ear  and  example  in  childhood. 
With  this  equipment  in  the  rudiments,  which  is  all  that  nearly  all 
the  girls,  and  most  of  the  boys  learn,  the  young  reader  can  master 
the  story-books,  novels,  primers  of  history,  epistles,  and  the  ordi- 
nary communications  of  business  and  friendship.  If  the  lad  is  to 
follow  agriculture,  cattle-raising,  trade,  mining,  or  hunting,  he 
usually  learns  no  more,  except  the  most  familiar  Chinese  char- 
acters for  numbers,  points  of  the  compass,  figures  on  the  clock- 
dial,  weights,  measures,  coins,  and  the  special  technical  terms 
necessary  in  his  own  business.  Thus  it  often  happens  that  a 
Corean  workman,  like  a Chinese  washerman,  may  be  perfectly 
familiar  with  the  characters  even  to  the  number  of  hundreds  re- 
lating to  his  trade  or  occupation,  and  yet  be  utterly  unable  to 
read  the  simplest  book,  or  construct  one  Chinese  sentence.  With 
the  Chinese  characters,  one  can  write  English  as  well  as  Corean 
or  Japanese,  but  a thorough  knowledge  of  the  terms  necessary  to 
a sailor,  a jeweller,  a farmer,  or  a lumber  merchant  would  not 
enable  one  to  read  Ivanhoe  or  Wordsworth. 

If  the  Corean  lad  aspires  to  government  service,  he  begins  early 
the  study  of  the  “true  letters”  or  “great  writing.”  The  first 
book  put  into  his  hands  is,  “ The  Thousand  Character  Classic.” 
This  work  is  said  to  have  been  composed  by  a sage  in  one  night — 
a labor  which  turned  the  hair  and  beard  of  the  composer  to 
wliiteness.  In  it  no  character  is  repeated,  and  all  the  phrases  are 


EDUCATION  AND  CULTURE. 


341 


ill  two  couplets,  making  four  to  a clause.  The  copies  for  children 
are  printed  from  wooden  blocks  in  very  large  type.  'At  the  right 
side  of  each  character  is  its  pronunciation  in  Corean,  and  on  the 
left  the  equivalent  Corean  word.  The  sounds  are  first  learned,  then 
the  meaning,  and  finally  the  syntax  and  the  sense  of  the  passages. 
Meanwhile  the  brush-pen  is  kept  busily  employed  until  the  whole 
text  of  the  author  is  thoroughly  mastered  by  eye,  ear,  hand,  and 
memory.  In  this  manner,  the  other  classics  are  committed.  Edu- 
cation at  first  consists  entirely  of  reading,  writing,  and  memoriz- 
ing. Etiquette  is  also  rigidly  attended  to,  but  arithmetic,  mathe- 
matics, and  science  receive  but  slight  attention. 

After  this  severe  exercise  of  memory  and  with  the  pen,  the 
critical  study  of  the  text  is  begun.  Passages  are  expounded  by 
the  teacher,  and  the  commentaries  are  consulted.  Essays  on  lite- 
rary themes  are  written,  and  a style  of  elegant  composition  in 
prose  and  verse  is  striven  for.  For  the  literary  examinations  in 
the  capital  and  provinces,  the  government  appoints  examiners,  who 
give  certificates  to  those  who  pass.  Those  who  succeed  at  the 
provincial  tests,  are  eligible  only  to  subordinate  grades  of  employ 
in  the  local  magistracies.  The  aspirants  to  higher  honors,  armed 
with  their  diplomas,  set  out  to  Seoul  to  attend  at  the  proper  time 
the  national  examination.  The  journey  of  these  lads,  full  of  the 
exultation  and  lively  spirit  born  of  success,  moving  in  hilarious 
revelry  over  the  high  roads,  form  one  of  the  picturesque  features 
of  out-door  life  in  Corea.  The  young  men  living  in  the  same  dis- 
trict or  town  go  together.  They  go  afoot,  taking  their  servants 
with  them.  Pluming  themselves  upon  the  fact  that  they  are  sum- 
moned to  the  capital  at  the  royal  behest,  they  often  make  a roy- 
stering,  noisy,  and  insolent  gang,  and  conduct  themselves  very 
much  as  they  please.  The  rustics  and  villagers  gladly  speed  their 
parting.  At  the  capital  they  scatter,  putting  up  wherever  accom- 
modations in  inns  or  at  the  houses  of  relatives  permit. 

Though  young  bachelors  form  the  majority  at  these  examina- 
tions, the  married  and  middle-aged  are  by  no  means  absent. 
Gray-headed  men  try  and  may  be  rejected  for  the  twentieth  time, 
and  grandfather,  father,  and  son  occasionally  apply  together. 

On  the  appointed  day,  the  several  thousand  or  more  competi- 
tors assemble  at  the  appointed  place,  with  the  provisions  which  are 
to  stay  the  inner  man  during  the  ordeal.  The  hour  preparatory  to 
the  assignment  of  themes  is  a noisy  and  smoky  one,  devoted  to 
study,  review,  declamation,  or  to  eating,  drinking,  chatting,  or 


342 


COREA. 


sleeping,  according  to  the  inclination  or  habit  of  each.  The  ex- 
amination consists  of  essays,  and  oral  and  written  answers  to  ques- 
tions. During  the  silent  part  of  his  work,  each  candidate  occupies 
a stall  or  cell.  The  copious,  minute,  and  complex  vocabulary  of 
terms  in  the  language  relating  to  the  work,  success  and  failure,  the 
contingencies,  honest  and  dishonest  shifts  to  secure  success,  and 
what  may  be  called  the  student’s  slang  and  folk-lore  of  the  subject, 
make  not  only  an  interesting  study  to  the  foreigner,  but  show  that 
these  contests  subtend  a large  angle  of  the  Corean  gentleman’s 
vision  during  much  of  his  lifetime. 

Examination  over,  the  disappointed  ones  wend  their  way  home 
with  what  resignation  or  philosophy  they  may  summon  to  their  aid. 
The  successful  candidates,  on  horseback,  with  bands  of  musicians, 
visit  their  patrons,  relatives,  the  examiners  and  high  dignitaries,  re- 
ceiving congratulations  and  returning  thanks.  Then  follows  the 
inevitable  initiation,  which  none  can  escape — corresponding  to 
the  French  “baptism  of  the  line,”  the  German  “introduction  to  the 
fox,”  the  English  “fagging,”  and  the  American  “hazing.” 

One  of  the  parents  or  friends  of  the  new  graduate,  an  “ alum- 
nus,” or  one  who  has  taken  a degree  himself,  one  also  of  the  same 
political  party,  acts  as  godfather,  and  presides  at  the  ceremony. 
The  graduate  presents  himself,  makes  his  salute  and  takes  his  seat 
several  feet  behind  the  president  of  the  party.  With  all  gravity 
the  latter  proceeds,  after  rubbing  up  some  ink  on  an  ink-stone,  to 
smear  the  face  of  the  victim  with  the  black  mess,  which  while  wet 
he  powders  thickly  over  with  flour.  Happy  would  the  new  gradu- 
ate be  could  he  escape  with  one  layer  of  ink  and  flour,  but  the 
roughness  of  the  joke  lies  in  this,  that  every  one  present  has  his 
daub  ; and  when  the  victim  thinks  the  ordeal  is  over  new  persons 
drop  in  to  ply  the  ink-brush  and  handful  of  flour.  Meanwhile  a 
carnival  of  fun  is  going  on  at  the  expense,  moral  and  pecuniary,  of 
the  graduate.  Eating,  drinking,  smoking,  and  jesting  are  the  or- 
der of  the  day.  It  is  impossible  to  avoid  this  trial  of  purse  and 
patience,  for  unless  the  victim  is  generous  and  good-natured,  other 
tricks  and  jokes  as  savage  and  cruel  as  those  sometimes  in  vogue 
in  American  and  British  colleges  follow.  After  this  farce,  but  not 
until  it  has  been  undergone,  is  the  title  recognized  by  society. 

The  three  degrees,  corresponding  somewhat  to  our  B.A.,  M.A., 
andPh.D.,  are  cho-si,  chin-sa,  kiup-chiei.  The  diplomas  are  awarded 
in  the  king’s  name,  the  second  written  on  white  paper,  and  the  third 
on  red  adorned  with  garlands  of  flowers.  The  degrees  are  not 


EDUCATION  AND  CULTURE 


343 


necessarily  successive.  The  highest,  or  the  second,  may  be  applied 
for  without  the  first.  The  holder  of  the  second  degree  may  obtain 
office  in  the  provinces,  and  after  some  years  may  become  a district 
magistrate  or  guardian  of  one  of  the  royal  sepulchres.  The  high- 
est degree  qualifies  one  to  fill  honorable  posts  at  the  palace  and  in 
the  capital,  in  one  of  the  ministries,  or  to  be  the  governor  of  a pro- 
vince, or  of  a great  city.  Properly,  the  place  of  a “doctor  ” is  in 
SeouL  The  usual  term  of  office  is  two  years. 

The  examinations  for  civil  titles  and  offices  attract  students  of 
the  highest  social  grade.  The  military  studies  are  chiefly  those  of 
archery  or  horsemanship,  the  literary  part  of  their  exercises  being 
slight.  But  one  degree,  the  lowest,  is  awarded,  and  if  the  holder 
is  of  gentle  blood,  and  has  political  influence,  he  may  rise  to  lucra- 
tive office  and  honors,  but  if  from  the  common  people,  he  usually 
gets  no  more  than  his  title,  or  remains  a private  or  petty  officer. 

The  system  of  literary  examinations  which,  when  first  established, 
and  during  two  or  three  centuries,  was  vigorously  maintained  with 
impartiality,  is  said  to  be  at  present  in  a state  of  decay,  bribery 
and  official  favor  being  the  causes  of  its  decline. 

The  special  schools  of  languages,  mathematics,  medicine,  art, 
etc.,  are  under  the  patronage  of  the  government.  The  teachers 
and  students  in  these  branches  of  knowledge  form  a special  class 
midway  between  the  nobles  and  people,  having  some  of  the  privi- 
leges of  the  former.  They  may  also  attend  the  examinations,  gain 
diplomas,  and  fill  offices.  Their  professions  are  usually  hereditary, 
and  they  marry  only  among  themselves.  In  most  respects,  these 
bodies  of  learned  men  resemble  the  old  guilds  of  scholars  in  Yedo, 
and  the  privileged  classes,  like  physicians,  astronomers,  botanists, 
etc.,  in  Japan. 

There  are  eight  distinct  departments  of  special  knowledge.  The 
Corps  of  Interpreters  include  students  and  masters  of  the  Chinese, 
Manchiu,  Mongol,  and  Japanese  languages.  These  attend  the  em- 
bassy to  Peking,  have  posts  on  the  frontier,  or  live  near  Fusan. 
The  treaties  recently  made  with  the  United  States  and  European 
powers  will  necessitate  the  establishment  of  schools  of  foreign  lan- 
guages, as  in  Tokio  and  Peking. 

The  School  of  Astronomy,  geoscopy,  and  the  choice  of  fortunate 
days  for  state  occasions  is  for  the  special  service  of  the  king. 
Corea,  like  China,  has  not  yet  separated  astrology  from  astronomy, 
but  still  keeps  up  official  consultation  with  the  heavenly  bodies  for 
luck’s  sake.  The  School  of  Medicine  trains  physicians  for  the  royal, 


344 


COREA. 


and  for  the  public,  service.  The  School  of  Charts  or  documents 
has  charge  of  the  archives  and  the  preparation  of  the  official  reports 
sent  to  Peking.  In  the  School  of  Design,  the  maps,  sketches,  plans 
and  graphic  work  required  by  the  government  are  made,  and  the 
portraits  of  the  king  are  painted.  The  School  of  Law  is  closely 
connected  with  the  Ministry  of  Justice,  and  serves  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  judges,  and  as  a court  of  appeals.  The  School  of  Mathe- 
matics or  Accounts  assists  the  Treasury  Department,  audits  ac- 
counts, appraises  values,  and  its  members  are  often  charged  with 
the  task  of  overseeing  public  works.  The  School  of  Horology  at 
Seoul  keeps  the  standard  time  and  looks  after  the  water-clock. 
Beside  these  eight  services,  there  is  the  band  of  palace  musicians. 

It  is  evident  from  all  the  information  gathered  from  sources 
within  and  without  the  hermit  nation,  that  though  there  is  culture  of 
a certain  sort  among  the  upper  classes,  there  is  little  popular  edu- 
cation worthy  of  a name.  The  present  condition  of  Cho-sen  is  that 
of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Confucian  temples  and  halls 
of  scholars,  the  memorial  stones  and  walls  inscribed  with  historical 
tablets  and  moral  maxims,  the  lectures  and  discussions  of  literary 
coteries,  and  the  poetry  parties  concentrate  learning  rather  than 
diffuse  it.  The  nobles  and  wealthy  scholars,  the  few  monasteries 
and  the  government  offices  possess  libraries,  but  these  are  but 
dead  Chinese  to  the  common  people.  Nothing  like  the  number  of 
book  stores,  circulating  libraries,  private  schools,  or  ordinary  means 
of  diffusing  intelligence,  common  in  China  and  Japan,  exists  in 
Corea.  Science  and  the  press,  newspapers  and  hospitals,  clocks 
and  petroleum,  and,  more  than  all,  churches  and  school-houses,  have 
yet  a mighty  work  to  do  in  the  Land  of  Morning  Calm. 

Paganism  and  superstition,  Confucianism  and  Buddhism,  hav- 
ing taken  root  in  Cho  sen,  each  with  its  educational  influence, 
Christianity  entered  within  the  last  century  to  plant  an  acorn 
within  the  narrow  bottle  of  the  Corean  intellect.  It  is  needless  to 
say  that  the  receptacle  was  shattered  by  the  spreading  of  the  oak. 
The  Corean  body-politic,  confronted  by  this  rooted  and  growing 
influence,  must  be  transformed.  How  the  seed  was  dropped,  how 
the  tiny  stem  grew,  how  the  trunk  received  into  its  bosom  the 
lightning  bolts  of  persecution,  how  the  boughs  were  riven,  and  how 
life  yet  remains,  will  now  be  narrated. 


III. 

MODERN  AND  RECENT 
HISTORY. 


MODERN  AND  RECENT  HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

THE  BEGINNINGS  OP  CHRISTIANITY— 1784-1794. 

Christianity  entered  Corea  through  the  gates  of  Rome  and 
Peking.  Though  some  writers  have  supposed  that  Christianity  was 
introduced  into  the  Corean  peninsula  by  the  Japanese,  in  1592,  yet 
it  is  nearly  certain  that  this  religion  was  popularly  unknown  until 
near  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Then  it  entered  from  the 
west,  and  not  from  the  east.  It  was  not  brought  by  foreigners, 
but  grew  up  from  chance  seed  wafted  from  the  little  garden  of  the 
church  in  Peking. 

The  soil  upon  which  the  exotic  germ  first  lighted  was  in  the 
mind  of  a student  well-named  by  his  father,  “ Stonewall,”  on  ac- 
count of  his  character  in  choosing  a literary  career,  instead  of  the 
hereditary  profession  which  his  family  wished  him  to  adopt.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  of  1777,  Stonewall  was  invited  to  form  one  of  a 
party  of  students  who  were  to  spend  a season  of  literary  dalliance 
in  company  with  the  famous  Confucian  professor,  Kwem. 

The  conference,  held  in  a secluded  temple,  lasted  ten  days, 
during  which  time  the  critical  study  of  the  texts  of  Confucius  and 
Mencius  was  indulged  in  with  keen  delight,  and  the  profoundest 
problems  that  can  interest  man  were  earnestly  discussed ; but 
most  fertilizing  to  their  minds  " were  some  tracts  on  philosophy, 
mathematics,  and  religion  just  brought  from  Peking.  These  were 
translations  of  the  writings,  or  original  compositions  in  Chinese  of 
the  Jesuits  in  the  imperial  capital.  Among  these  publications  were 
some  tracts  on  the  Christian  and  Roman  Catholic  Religion,  treating 
of  the  Existence  of  God,  Divine  Providence,  the  Immortality  of  the 
Soul,  the  Conduct  of  Life,  the  Seven  Capital  Sins,  and  the  Seven 


348 


COREA. 


Contrary  Virtues.  Surprised  and  delighted,  they  resolved  to  attain, 
if  possible,  to  a full  understanding  of  the  new  doctrines. 

They  began  at  once  to  practise  what  they  knew,  and  morning 
and  evening  they  read  and  prayed.  They  set  apart  the  7th,  14tli, 
”21st  and  28th  days  of  the  month  as  periods  of  rest,  fasting,  and 
meditation.  How  long  they  continued  this  course  of  life  is  not 
known. 

Stonewall,  well  knowing  that  his  ideas  of  this  new  religion  were 
imperfect  and  confused,  turned  his  thoughts  longingly  toward 
Peking,  hoping  to  get  more  books  or  information  through  a living 
teacher.  For  several  years  all  his  attempts  were  fruitless  ; though 
study,  discussion,  and  practice  of  the  new  life  were  continued.  In 
1782,  he  moved  to  Seoul  to  live,  and  in  1783,  to  his  joy,  his  friend 
Senghuni,  son  of  the  third  ambassador  to  Peking,  proceeded  thither 
through  Shing-king  (Liao  Tung),  with  a message  to  the  bishop, 
Alexander  de  Gorla,  a Portuguese  Franciscan. 

Senghuni  himself  became  a docile  pupil,  and  was,  with  the  con- 
sent of  his  father,  baptized.  With  the  hope  that  he  would  become 
the  first  stone  of  the  church  in  Cho-sen,  he  was  named  Peter.' 
He  pledged  himself  to  suffer  all  torments  rather  than  abandon  his 
faith,  to  have  but  one  wife,  to  renounce  worldly  vanities,  and  finally 
to  send  his  foreign  friends  tidings  every  year. 

Safely  passing  the  sentinels  at  Ai-chiu,  he  reached  Seoul. 
Stonewall,  eagerly  receiving  his  share,  gave  himself  for  a time  up  to 
fresh  reading  and  meditation,  and  then  began  to  preach.  Some  of 
his  friends  in  the  capital,  both  nobles  and  commoners,  embraced 
the  new  doctrines  with  cheering  promptness  and  were  baptized. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  choice  of  baptismal  names.  As 
Stonewall  had  been  the  forerunner,  he  was  named  John  the  Bap- 
tist. Another  called  himself  Francis  Xavier,  intending  to  make 
this  saint  his  protector  and  patron.  Other  names  of  these  primitive 
confessors  are  Ambrose,  Paul,  Louis,  Thomas,  Augustine,  and  later, 


1 The  equipment  of  this  first  native  missionary  propagandist  of  Roman  Chris- 
tianity in  Corea,  deserves  notice,  as  it  brings  out  in  sharp  contrast  the  differ- 
ing methods  of  Roman  and  Reformed  Christianity.  The  convert  brought 
back  numerous  tracts,  didactic  and  polemic  treatises,  catechisms  and  com- 
mentaries, prayer-books,  lives  of  the  saints,  etc.,  etc.  These  were  for  the 
learned,  and  those  able  to  master  them.  For  the  simple,  there  was  a goodly 
supply  of  crosses  and  crucifixes,  images,  pictures,  and  various  other  objects  to 
strike  the  eye.  It  is  not  stated  that  the  Bible,  or  any  part  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, was  sent  for  the  feeding  of  hungry  souls. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  CHRISTIANITY— 17S4-1794. 


349 


among  the  women,  Agatha,  Marie,  Madeleine,  Barbe,  etc.  The 
adoption  of  these  foreign  names  excited  bitter  feelings  among  the 
patriotic,  and  became  a cause  of  intense  hatred  against  the  Chris- 
tians, who  were  stigmatized  as  “ foreigner-Coreans.” 

A counterblast  soon  followed.  The  first,  and  as  they  were  des- 
tined to  be  the  last  and  most  hitter  enemies  were  the  literati,  who 
saw  at  once  that  the  new  faith  sapped  at  the  base  their  national 
beliefs  and  their  firost  cherished  customs.  In  the  contest  of  dis- 
cussion which  followed,  Senghuni  came  off  victor.  The  pagan 
champions  retired  from  the  conflict  uttering  memorable  and  pro- 
phetic words,  with  a final  question,  that  became  a by-word  to 
Americans  nearly  a century  later : “ This  [Christian]  doctrine  is 
magnificent,  it  is  true,  but  it  will  bring  sorrow  to  those  who  pro- 
fess it.  What  are  you  going  to  do  about  it  ? ” 

Among  the  converts  were  the  lecturer  Kwem  and  his  brother, 
both  of  whom  propagated  the  faith  in  their  district  of  Yang-kun, 
thirty  miles  east  of  Seoul,  now  justly  called  “the  cradle  of  the 
faith.”  One  of  their  converted  students  from  the  Nai-po  returned 
home  to  labor  in  the  new  cause,  and  from  first  to  last,  in  the  his- 
tory of  Roman  Christianity  in  Corea,  Nai-po  has  ever  been  a nur- 
sery of  fervent  confessors  and  illustrious  martyrs.  A second  con- 
vert of  the  Kwem  brothers  laid  the  foundations  of  the  faith  in 
Chulla.  At  the  capital,  a learned  interpreter,  on  becoming  a be- 
liever, multiplied  with  his  own  facile  pen  copies  of  the  books 
brought  from  Peking  ; and  it  is  believed  translated  from  the 
Chinese  the  “ Explanation  of  the  Gospels  of  the  Sabbaths  and 
Feasts  ” — the  first  Christian  book  in  the  Corean  language. 

Thus  from  small  beginnings,  but  rapidly,  were  the  Christian 
ideas  spread,  but  soon  the  arm  of  the  law  and  the  power  of  the 
pen  were  invoked  to  crush  out  the  exotic  faith.  The  first  victim, 
Thomas  Kim,  was  tried  on  the ' charge  of  destroying  his  ancestral 
tablets,  tortured,  and  sent  into  exile,  in  which  he  soon  after  died. 
The  scholar  now  took  up  weapons,  and  in  April,  1784,  the  king’s 
preceptor  fulminated  the  first  public  document  officially  directed 
against  Christianity.  In  it  all  parents  and  relatives  were  entreated 
to  break  off  all  relations  with  the  Christians.  The  names  of  the 
leaders  were  published ; and  the  example  of  Kim  was  cited. 
Forthwith  began  a violent  pressure  of  entreaty  and  menace  upon 
the  believers  to  renounce  their  faith.  Instead  of  peace,  the  sword 
was  brought  into  the  household.  Then  began  an  exhibition  alike 
of  glorious  confession  and  shameful  apostasy,  but  though  even 


350 


COREA. 


Stonewall  lapsed,  the  work  went  on  in  Nai-po,  and  in  1787,'  per- 
secution slackened. 

Meanwhile,  in  order  to  cement  more  closely  their  bonds,  the 
leaders  formed  a hierarchy  after  the  model  which  Peter  had  seen  in 
Peking,  and  to  which  their  liturgical  books  so  often  referred. 
Francis  Xavier  was  made  bishop  and  others  were  chosen  as  priests. 
Separating  to  their  various  posts,  they  baptized,  confessed,  con- 
firmed, and  distributed  the  sacred  elements  in  communion,  all  of 
which  infused  a new  glow  of  faith  among  the  converts.  They 
robed  themselves  in  rich  Chinese  silk,  and  erected  platform  con- 
fessionals. For  ordinary  faults  confessed  by  the  kneeling  penitents 
alms  were  ordered,  but  for  graver  derelictions  the  priests  ad- 
ministered one  or  two  smart  blows  on  the  legs — a mild  imitation  of 
the  national  punishment,  which  so  suggests  Western  methods  of 
nursery  discipline. 

In  perfect  good  faith  and  harmony,  this  curious  hierarchy,  so 
strange  and  even  comical  to  a believer  in  the  so-called  “ apostolical 
succession  ” — continued  for  two  years  ; but  in  1789,  certain 
passages  in  their  books  suggested  doubts  as  to  the  validity  of  their 
ministry.  After  earnest  thought,  and  even  at  the  risk  of  public 
ridicule,  and  of  troubling  the  consciences  of  the  faithful,  they  re- 
signed their  offices  and  took  their  places  among  the  laity.  A letter 
of  inquiry  was  written,  and  sent  in  1790  by  the  convert  Paul  to 
Peking.  Surprised  and  overjoyed  at  the  news  from  Corea,  the 
fathers  baptized  and  confirmed  Paul,  explained  to  him  the  Roman 
dogma  of  validity  of  ordination,  and  gave  him  a letter  written  on 
silk,  to  be  concealed  in  his  clothes,  directed  to  Peter  and  Francis 
Xavier.  His  godfather  Pansi,  being  an  artist,  painted  Paul’s 
portrait  in  oil,  which  was  sent  on  to  Paris. 

The  Christians  at  Seoul  graciously  submitted  to  the  Episcopal 
rebuke  and  explanation,  giving  them  the  right  only  to  baptize,  yet 

1 It  was  during  the  summer  of  this  year,  1787,  that  La  Perouse  sailed 
along  the  eastern  coast  of  Cho-sen,  discovered  the  straits  which  hear  his 
name,  between  Yezo  and  Saghalin,  demonstrated  that  the  Gulf  of  Tartary 
divided  Saghalin  from  the  Asian  mainland,  and  that  Corea  was  not  sea-girt, 
and  named  Dagelet  Island  and  its  companion  Boussole.  He  had  a copy  of 
Hamel’s  hook  with  him.  He  noticed  the  signal-fires  along  the  coast,  which 
from  headland  to  headland,  telegraphed  to  the  capital  the  news  of  the  stranger 
with  his  “black  ships.”  Not  as  vet,  however,  as  afterward,  did  the  govern- 
ment connect  the  appearance  of  European  vessels  with  the  activity  of  the 
Christians  within  the  realm,  although  La  Perouse  sailed  under  the  flag  which 
ever  afterward  was  indissolubly  associated  in  Corean  minds  with  Christianity. 


THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  CHRISTIANITY— 1784-1794. 


351 


they  yearned  to  receive  the  sacraments.  Inflamed  by  the  accounts 
of  Paul,  who  pictured  before  them  the  ritual  splendors,  in  the 
Peking  cathedral,  of  altars,  lights,  vestments,  solemn  masses, 
music,  processions,  and  all  that  enchants  the  eye  and  fires  the 
imagination  in  the  Roman  form  of  Christianity,  they  indited 
another  letter  to  the  bishop,  beseeching  that  an  ordained  priest 
should  be  sent  them.  This  letter,  carried  by  Paul,  who  left  with 
the  special  embassy  sent  to  congratulate  the  renowned  emperor 
Kien-lung,  which  left  Seoul  September  17,  1790,  contained  a whole 
catechism  of  vexed  questions  of  discipline  and  faith  which  had  be- 
gun to  disturb  the  little  church. 

While  in  Peking,  Paul’s  companion  was  baptized,  receiving  the 
name  of  John  the  Baptist.  The  fathers  gave  them  a chalice,  a 
missal,  a consecrated  stone,  some  altar  ornaments,  and  everything 
necessary  for  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist,  with  a recipe  for 
making  wine  out  of  grapes,  in  order  that  all  might  be  ready  on  the 
arrival  of  a priest  among  them.  Paul  and  John  the  Baptist,  after 
the  return  journey  of  a thousand  miles  through  Shing-king, 
arrived  safely  in  Seoul.  All  were  filled  with  joy  at  the  idea  of 
having  a priest  sent  them,  but  the  episcopal  decision  against  the 
worship  of  ancestors  proved  to  many  a stone  of  stumbling  and  a 
cause  of  apostasy.  Hitherto,  in  simple  ignorance  and  good  faith, 
they  had  honored  their  ancestral  shades  and  burnt  incense  at 
their  shrines.  Henceforth,  all  participation  in  such  rites  was  im- 
possible. After  the  authoritative  declaration  from  Peking,  that 
the  worship  of  God  and  the  worship  of  ancestors  were  contrary 
and  impossible,  no  Corean  could  be  a Christian  while  he  burned 
incense  before  the  tablets. 

This  tenet  of  the  bishop  was  in  the  eyes  of  the  Corean  public  a 
blow  at  the  framework  of  society,  the  base  of  the  family,  and  the 
foundation  of  the  state.  From  this  time  forward,  many  of  the 
feeble  adherents  began  to  fall  away.  In  the  conflict  of  filial  and 
religious  duty,  many  a soul  was  torn  with  remorse.  In  frequent 
instances  the  earnest  believer  who,  for  conscience  sake,  despoiled 
the  family  oratory  and  piling  the  ancestral  tablets  in  his  garden 
set  them  on  fire,  saw  his  aged  parents  sink  with  sorrow  to  the 
grave.  For  this  crime  Paul  and  Jacques  Kim  were  put  upon  pub- 
lic trial,  at  which,  for  the  first  time,  a clear  and  systematic  presen- 
tation of  Christian  doctrine  and  the  Roman  cultus  was  elicited. 
The  case,  after  condemnation  of  the  prisoners,  was  submitted  to  the 
king,  who  was  prevailed  upon  by  the  premier  to  approve  the  find- 


352 


COREA. 


ing  of  the  local  tribunal.  On  December  8,  1791,  the  two  Chris- 
tians, after  publicly  refusing  to  recant,  and  reading  aloud  the  sen- 
tence inscribed  upon  the  board  to  be  nailed  over  their  pillory,  were 
decapitated,  while  invoking  the  names  of  Jesus  and  Mary.  Their 
ages  were  thirty-three  and  forty-one. 

Thus  was  shed  the  first  blood  for  Corean  Christianity — the  first 
drops  of  the  shower  to  come,  and  the  seed  of  a mighty  church. 
The  headless  trunks,  frozen  to  a stony  rigidity  which  kept  even  the 
blood  fresh  and  red,  lay  unburied  on  the  ground  for  nine  days,  un- 
til devout  men  carried  them  to  burial.  A number  of  handkerchiefs 
dipped  in  their  blood  and  preserved  kept  long  alive  the  memory  of 
these  first  martyrs  of  bloody  persecution.  The  Nai-po  now  became 
a hunting-ground  for  the  minions  of  the  magistrates,  who  sought 
out  all  who  professed  themselves  Christians  and  threw  them  in 
prison.  There  the  tortures,  peculiarly  Corean,  were  set  to  work  to 
cause  apostasy.  The  victims  were  beaten  with  rods  and  paddles 
on  the  flesh  and  shin-bones,  or  whipped  till  the  flesh  hung  in 
bloody  rags.  In  many  cases  their  bones  were  disjointed  until  the 
limbs  dangled  limp  and  useless.  One  man,  Francis  Xavier,  after 
prolonged  agonies  was  exiled  to  Quelpart,  and  on  being  removed 
to  another  place,  died  on  the  way.  Peter,  61  years  old,  after 
wearying  his  torturers  with  his  endurance,  was  tied  round  with  a 
cord,  laid  on  the  icy  ground  at  night,  while  pails  of  water  were 
poured  over  him,  which  freezing  as  it  fell,  covered  his  body  with  a 
shroud  of  ice.  In  this  Dantean  tomb,  the  old  martyr,  calling  on 
the  name  of  Jesus,  was  left  to  welcome  death,  which  came  to  him 
at  the  second  cock-crow  on  the  morning  of  January  29,  1793. 

In  the  ten  years  following  the  baptism  of  Peter  at  Peking,  in 
spite  of  persecution  and  apostasy,  it  is  estimated  that  there  were 
four  thousand  Christians  in  Corea.1 


1 This  rapid  spread  of  Christian  ideas  may  be  understood  if  we  consider, 
as  Dallet  points  out,  the  customs  of  the  people.  In  every  house  there  is  the 
room  open  to  the  street,  where  everybody,  friend  or  stranger,  known  or  un- 
known, may  come  and  talk  or  hear  the  news  and  discuss  events.  Nothing  is 
kept  secret,  and  being  a nation  of  gossips  and  loungers,  the  news  of  any  event, 
or  the  expression  of  a fresh  idea,  spreads  like  fire  on  the  prairie.  A doctrine 
so  startlingly  new,  and  preached  as  it  was  by  men  already  famous  for  their 
learning,  would  at  once  excite  the  public  curiosity,  set  all  tongues  running, 
and  fire  many  hearts.  Though  in  most  cases  the  new  flame  would  soon  die 
out,  leaving  hardly  enough  ashes  to  mark  a fire,  yet  the  steady  glow  of  altered 
lives  would  not  pale  even  before  torture  and  death. 


CHAPTER  XL. 


PERSECUTION  AND  MARTYRDOM— 1 SOI -1834. 

The  first  attempt  of  a foreign  missionary  to  enter  the  hermit 
kingdom  from  the  west  was  made  in  February,  1791.  Jean  dos 
Remedios,  a Portuguese  priest  from  Macao,  offered  himself,  was  ac- 
cepted, and  left  Peking  for  the  Border  Gate  with  some  Chinese 
guides.  After  a twenty  days’  journey  in  midwinter,  he  arrived  on 
the  frontier,  and  there  awaited  the  precarious  chances  of  recognition, 
according  to  certain  signs  agreed  upon.  For  ten  days  he  scanned 
the  faces  of  the  noisy  crowd,  hoping  every  moment  to  light  upon 
friends,  but  in  vain.  The  Christians,  kept  at  home  by  the  violence 
of  the  persecution,  feared  to  venture  to  the  border.  The  fair 
closed,  the  embassy  crossed  the  Yalu  River,  while  the  foreigner  and 
his  Chinese  guides  returned  to  Peking.  There  the  disappointed 
priest  soon  after  died. 

About  the  same  time,  the  Bishop  of  Peking  addressed  a letter 
to  the  Pope  detailing  the  origin,  development,  and  condition  of 
the  new-born  church  in  Corea. 

Hearing  no  word  from  the  Corean  Christians  during  the  next 
two  years,  it  was  determined  to  send  succor.  For  this  pei’ilous 
mission,  a young  Chinese  priest  named  Jacques  Tsiu,  twenty-four 
years  old,  of  good  bodily  strength  and  pronounced  piety,  whose 
visage  closely  resembled  a Corean’s,  was  selected.  Fortified  with 
extraordinary  ecclesiastical  powers,  he  left  Peking  in  February, 
1794,  and  in  twenty  days  arrived  on  the  neutral  ground.  There 
he  met  the  Christians,  who  urged  him  to  wait  nearly  a year,  on  ac- 
count of  the  vigilance  of  the  sentinels.  This  he  did  among  his  fel- 
low Christians  in  Shing-king,  and  on  the  night  of  December  23, 
1794,  crossed  the  Yalu,  reached  Seoul  in  safety,  and  at  once  began 
his  labors.  All  went  on  well  till  June,  when,  through  a treacherous 
visitor,  the  official  spies  were  put  upon  his  track.  In  spite  of  his 
removal  to  another  place,  three  Christians — two  who  had  guided 
him  to  Seoul,  and  one  an  interpreter,  who  in  sublime  self-sacrifice 
23 


354 


COREA. 


tried  to  pass  liimself  off  as  the  Chinaman — were  seized  and  tor- 
tured. With  arms  and  legs  dislocated,  and  knees  crushed,  thej 
refused  to  betray  their  brother  in  the  faith,  and  were  put  to  death 
in  prison,  June  18.  The  three  headless  and  battered  trunks  were 
flung  in  the  Han  River,  which  for  the  first,  but  not  for  the  last  time 
was  streaked  with  martyr  blood. 

Meanwhile,  the  Chinese  priest  was  at  first  hidden  for  many  days 
under  a wood-pile  by  a Christian  lady,  who,  having  gained  over  her 
mother-in-law,  sheltered  him  in  her  house,  where,  protected  by  the 
law  which  forbids  a noble’s  dwelling  to  be  invaded,  he  remained 
three  years.  In  September,  1796,  he  wrote  a letter  in  Latin  to  the 
Bishop  of  Peking,  and  the  native  Christians  writing  in  Chinese, 
the  copies  on  silk  were  sewed  into  the  garments  of  two  believers, 
who,  having  bought  positions  as  servants  in  the  embassy,  arrived 
in  Peking,  January  28,  1797.  Among  other  things  Jacques  pro- 
posed that  the  King  of  Portugal  should  send  an  embassy  to 
the  King  of  Cho-sen  to  obtain  a treaty  of  friendship,  and  allow 
the  residence  of  physicians,  astronomers,  and  scientific  men  in 
Corea. 

Though  no  Portuguese  envoy  was  sent  out  to  treat  with  the 
court  of  Seoul,1 2  a foreign  vessel  appeared  in  the  autumn  of  this 
same  year,  off  the  eastern  coast,  floating  the  British  flag.  It  was 
the  sloop  of  war  Providence,  carrying  sixteen  guns,  commanded  by 
Captain  W.  R.  Broughton,  who  cast  anchor  in  Yung-hing  Bay, 
October  4th,  and  touched  at  Fusan.s  One  of  the  natives  who  vis- 
ited the  ship  was  suspected  by  the  government  and  arrested ; 
though  the  English  visitors  were  ignorant  of  the  existence  of  Chris- 
tians in  Corea,  and  the  local  magistrates  were  equally  uninformed 
as  to  the  difference  in  religion  and  nationality  between  Britons  and 
Portuguese. 

The  four  political  parties  into  which  the  Corean  nobility  was  at 
this  time  divided,  as  described  in  Chapter  XXV.,  were  ranged  into 

1 “ Some  priests  proposed  to  the  late  Queen  of  Portugal  to  send  an  embassy 

hither  [to  Corea]  with  some  gentlemen  versed  in  mathematics,  that  they  might 
benefit  the  country  both  in  a religious  and  scientific  way.  . . . This  plan 

never  succeeded.”  Gutzlaff,  1834.  Voyages  to  China,  page  261. 

2 Captain  Broughton  was  impressed  with  “the  gorgeous  Corean  dresses,” 
and  the  umbrella-hats,  a yard  in  diameter.  He  asked  for  beef,  but  they  gave 
him  only  wood,  and  he  was  tantalized  with  the  sight  of  fat  cattle  grazing  near 
by,  which  he  was  unable  to  get  or  purchase.  He  cruised  in  the  Sea  of  Japan 
and  the  Gulf  of  Tartary,  naming  several  places  on  the  Corean  coast.  See 
p.  203. 


PERSECUTION"  AND  MARTYRDOM. 


355 


House  and  Garden  of  a Nob'e. 


356 


COREA. 


two  general  groups,  tlie  Si-pai  and  the  Piek-pai,  “ the  govern 
ment  ” and  “ the  opposition.”  The  Si-pai  were  devoted  to  the  king, 
and  ready  to  second  his  views,  the  Piek-pai  were  more  attached  to 
their  special  views.  The  king,  Cheng-chong,  who  had  ruled  since 
1776,  was  opposed  to  persecution  of  the  Christians,  and  had  done 
much  to  restrain  the  bitterness  of  partisans.  The  Si-pai  in- 
cluded the  Nam-in,  or  “ Southern  ” wing,  in  which  were  the  Chris- 
tian nobles,  while  all  their  enemies  belonged  to  the  Piek-pai. 
So  long  as  the  king  lived,  the  sword  of  persecution  slept  in  its  scab- 
bard, but  in  1800  1 the  king  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Suncho,  a boy  still  under  the  care  of  his  grandmother.  This  lady 
at  once  assumed  the  conduct  of  national  affairs,2 3 *  and  no  sooner  were 
the  five  months  of  public  mourning  decently  over,  than  the  queen 
regent  dismissed  the  ministers  then  in  office,  and  installed  three 
others  of  the  No-ron  group,  all  of  whom  were  bitter  enemies  of  the 
Christians.  A decree  of  general  persecution  was  issued  a few  days 
after,  in  the  name  of  the  king.  Two  converts  of  noble  rank  were 
at  once  arrested,  and  during  1801,  the  police  were  busy  in  haling 
to  prison  believers  of  every  rank,  age,  and  sex.  Alexander  Wang, 
who  had  written  a book  in  his  native  language  on  “ The  Prin- 
cipal Articles  of  the  Christian  Religion,”  and  had  begun  another 
on  systematic  theology,  was  arrested.  From  the  reading  of 
these  works,  the  magistrates  imagined  the  essence  of  Christianity 
was  in  hatred  of  one’s  parents  and  the  king,  and  the  destruction 
of  the  human  race.5  The  Church  Calendar  was  also  seized. 

The  Chinese  priest  was  outlawed  by  the  government,  in  a public 
proclamation.  On  reading  this,  the  brave  man  left  the  house  of  the 
noble  lady  in  which  he  had  been  sheltered,  and  refusing  to  endan- 
ger longer  the  lives  of  his  friends,  voluntai'ily  surrendered  himself, 


1 See  page  226. 

2 Or,  as  the  natives  say,  “ she  proceeded  to  pull  down  the  blinds.”  This 
phrase,  which  is  highly  suggestive  of  American  street  slang,  refers  to  the 
curtain  of  bamboo  which  veils  the  sovereign  of  Cho-sen  ; as  in  Old  Japan 
the  mikado  was  thus  screened  from  the  vulgar,  and  even  noble,  gaae  dur- 
ing state  councils.  Whoever,  therefore,  is  “behind  the  curtain,”  is  on  the 
throne. 

3 This  highly  logical  conclusion  was  reached  by  pondering  upon  the  doc- 
trine of  Romanism  that  celibacy  is  a more  perfect  state  than  marriage ; and 
that  “the  world,”  which,  with  the  flesh  and  the  devil,  was  to  be  regarded  as 

one  of  the  true  believers’  enemies,  could  mean  only  the  king  and  country  of 
Cho-sen.  To  this  day,  most  of  the  pagans  accept  the  magistrates’  decision  as  • 

complete  epitome  of  the  gospel  of  Christ. 


PERSECUTION  AND  MARTYRDOM. 


357 


and  received  the  death-stroke,  May  31,  1801,  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
two.  His  hostess,  Colombe,  thrown  in  prison  herself,  while  await- 
ing death  wrote  out  his  life  and  works  on  the  silk  skirt  of  her 

D 

dress.  At  her  execution  the  noble  lady  begged  that  she  might 
not  be  stripped  of  her  clothes,  as  were  other  malefactors,  but  die 
in  her  robes.  Her  request  was  granted,  and  with  the  grace  of  the 
English  Lady  Jane  Grey,  she  laid  her  head  on  the  block.  Four 
other  women,  formerly  attendants  in  the  palace,  and  an  artist,  who 
for  painting  Christian  subjects  was  condemned,  were  beheaded  by 
the  official  butchers,  who  made  the  “Little  Western  Gate”  of 
Seoul — where  a Christian  church  may  yet  be  built — a Golgotha. 
The  policy  of  the  government  was  shown  in  making  away  with  the 
Christians  of  rank  and  education,  who  might  be  able  to  direct 
affairs  in  the  absence  of  the  foreign  priests,  and  in  letting  the  poor 
and  humble  go  free. 

From  a letter  written  on  silk  in  sympathetic  ink  to  the  Bishop 
of  Peking  by  Alexander  Wang,  and,  with  the  aid  of  treachery,  de- 
ciphered by  the  magistrates,  they  suspected  a general  conspiracy 
of  the  Christians  ; for  in  his  letter  this  Corean  proposed  an  appeal 
to  the  Christian  nations  of  Europe  to  send  sixty  or  seventy  thou- 
sand soldiers  to  conquer  Corea ! 1 The  bearer  of  this  letter  was 
immediately  beheaded,  and  his  body  cut  into  six  pieces ; while 
the  visitor  to  Captain  Broughton’s  ship  in  1799,  for  having  said 
that  “ one  such  ship  as  that  could  easily  destroy  one  hundred 
Corean  vessels  of  war,”  was  put  to  the  torture  and  condemned. 
Alexander  Wang,  who  had  witnessed  a good  confession,  before 
the  king,  a year  before,  and  bore  on  his  wrist  the  cord  of  crimson 
silk  showing  that  he  had  touched  the  royal  person,  was  likewise 
decapitated. 

It  now  devolved  upon  the  king  of  Clio-sen  to  explain  to  his 
suzerain  the  execution  of  a Chinese  subject.  In  a letter  full  of 
Confuciau  orthodoxy,  he  declares  that  ChO-sen  from  the  time  of  Ki 
Tsze,  had  admitted  no  other  dogmas  than  those  taught  by  the 
sages  of  China — “ all  other  doctrine  is  strange  to  the  Little 
Kingdom.”  He  describes  the  Christians  as  “the  monstrous,  bar- 
barous, and  infamous”  “sect  of  brigands”  “who  live  like  brutes 
and  birds  of  the  vilest  sort,”  and  who  in  their  plot,  “ have 
interlaced  themselves  as  a serpent  and  knotted  themselves  to- 
gether like  a cord.”  The  plan  to  conquer  “ the  Little  King- 


1 Dallet,  vol.  i.,  p.  205. 


358 


COREA. 


dom  at  the  corner  of  the  earth  ” by  myriads  of  men  and  ves- 
sels from  Europe  is  detailed,  with  an  apology  for  the  execution  ol 
Jacques,  not  as  a Chinese  subject,  but  as  chief  conspirator.  Dal- 
let  suggests  that,  in  answer  to  this  letter,  the  Dragon  Monarch 
read  the  king  a tart  lecture,  and  hinted  that  a rich  stream 
of  silver  would  soothe  his  ruffled  scales.  “ China  had  not 
been  China  had  she  lost  so  fair  an  occasion  to  fleece  her  cowering 
vassal.” 

A fresh  edict,  made  up  of  the  usual  fixed  ammunition  of  Corean 
rhetoric,  was  fulminated  against  “ the  evil  sect,”  January  25,  1802. 
The  result  was  to  advertise  the  outlawed  faith  in  every  corner  of 
the  realm.  Nevertheless,  the  condition  of  the  Christians  scattered 
in  the  mountains  and  northern  forests,  or  suffering  poverty,  hun- 
ger, and  cold  at  home,  was  deplorable,  under  the  stress  of  political 
as  well  as  religious  hatred. 

The  first  exchange  of  Muscovite  and  Corean  courtesies  took 
place  in  1808,  when  several  of  the  commissioners  from  Seoul 
were  in  Peking.1  Presents  were  mutually  given,  which  in 
both  cases  were  products  of  the  then  widely  separated  coun- 
tries, which  were  destined  within  fifty  years  to  be  next-door 
neighbors. 

Out  of  the  modern  catacombs  of  Roman  Christianity,  the 
Corean  converts  addressed  two  letters,  dated  December  9 and  18, 
1811,  to  the  Pope — “ the  Very  High,  Very  Great  Father,  Chief  of 
the  whole  Church” — in  which  they  invited  help,  not  only  of  a spir- 
itual nature,  but  aid  in  ships  and  envoys  to  treat  with  their  king. 
They  were  willing  even  to  leave  their  native  land  and  colonize  the 
islands  in  the  sea,  for  the  sake  of  worship  and  conscience.  Signed 
with  fictitious  names,  copied  on  silk,  and  sewn  in  the  clothing  of 
the  messenger,  they  reached  Peking  and  Rome,  but  the  bishop 
of  neither  city  could  afford  succor.  His  Holiness  was  then  a 
prisoner  at  Fontainebleau,  and  the  Roman  propaganda  was 
nearly  at  a standstill.  With  a goodly  supply  of  medals  and 
crosses,  the  messenger  returned,  and  the  church  in  Corea  enjoyed 
peace,  and  new  converts  were  made  until  1815,  when  a non-po- 
litical persecution  broke  out  for  a while  in  Kang-wen  and  Kiung- 
sang. 

In  1817,  the  king  and  court  were  terrified  by  the  appearance  off 


’ Timkowski’s  Travels  of  the  Russian  Mission  through  Mongolia  to  China, 
and  Residence  in  Peking,  London,  1827. 


PERSECUTION  AND  MARTYRDOM. 


359 


the  west  coast  of  the  British  1 vessels  Alceste  and  Lyra.  They  sus- 
pected that  the  good  captain  and  jolly  surgeon,  who  have  given  us 
such  fascinating  narratives  of  their  cruise,  were  in  active  connection 
with  “the  evil  sect;”  but  beyond  some  surveys,  purchases  of  beef, 
and  interviews  with  local  magistrates,  the  foreigners  departed 
without  further  designs  against  the  throne. 

In  1823  several  of  the  Christians,  encouraged  by  hopes  held 
out  by  the  Bishop  of  Peking,  went  to  the  Border  Gate  to  meet  a 
foreign  priest,  but  to  their  dismay  found  none.  In  1826, 2 they 
were  troubled  by  a report  that  the  sho-gun  of  Japan  had  requested 
their  king  to  return  six  Japanese  adherents  of  the  interdicted 
“ Jesus  sect,”  who  had  fled  the  empire  in  a boat.  Shortly  after,  in 
Chulla,  through  a quarrel  instigated  by  a drunken  potter,  a con- 
vert, which  led  to  information  given  in  spite,  a severe  persecution 
broke  out,  lasting  three  months. 

The  year  1832  was  noted  for  its  rainfall  and  inundations. 
To  propitiate  Heaven’s  favor  the  king  recalled  many  exiles,  among 
whom  were  Christians.  In  this  year  also  the  British  ship,  Lord 
Amherst,  was  sent  out  by  the  East  India  Company  on  a voyage 
of  commercial  exploration,  and  to  open,  if  possible,  new  mar- 
kets for  the  fabrics  of  England  and  India.  On  board  was  a Prus- 
sian gentleman,  the  Rev.  Charles  Gutzlaff,  under  the  patronage 
of  the  Netherlands  Missionary  Society,  though  travelling  at  his 
own  cost.  Reaching  the  coast  of  Chulla,  July  17th,  he  remained 
one  month.  Being  a good  Chinese  scholar,  and  well  equipped  with 
medical  knowledge,  he  landed  on  several  of  the  islands  and  on 
the  mainland,  he  distributed  presents  of  books,  buttons,  and 
medicines,  planted  potatoes  and  taught  their  cultivation.  Through 
an  officer  he  sent  the  king  presents  of  cut  glass,  calicoes,  and 
woollen  goods,  with  a copy  of  the  Bible  and  some  Protestant 
Christian  tracts.  These,  after  some  days  of  negotiation,  were  re- 
fused. A few  of  the  more  intelligent  natives  risked  their  heads, 
and  accepted  various  gifts,  among  which  were  Chinese  translations 


1 In  1793,  the  first  British  and  the  first  European  vessel  entered  the  Yellow 
Sea.  It  was  the  ship  of  the  line  Lion,  on  hoard  of  which  was  Lord  Macartney, 
the  ambassador  of  King  George  III.  to  Peking,  the  first  English  envoy  to 
China.  The  ship  did  not  visit  or  approach  Corean  shores. 

2 This  date  is  that  given  by  Dallet,  who  perhaps  refers  to  the  uprising  in 
1829  at  Ozaka,  of  suspected  believers  in  the  “Jesus  doctrine,”  when  six  men 
and  one  old  woman  were  crucified  by  the  Japanese  authorities.  The  leader 
of  the  so-called  conspiracy  fled  to  sea  with  his  companions. 


360 


COREA. 


of  European  works  on  geography  and  mathematics.  Mr.  Gutzlaff 
could  discover  no  trace  of  Christianity1  or  the  converts,  though  he 
made  diligent  inquiry.  The  lying  magistrates  denied  all  knowledge 
of  even  the  existence  of  the  Christian  faith.  Deeply  impressed 
with  their  poverty,  dirt,  love  of  drink,  and  degradation,  the  Prot- 
estant, after  being  nearly  a month  among  the  Coreans,  left  their 
shores,  fully  impressed  with  their  need  of  soap  and  bibles. 

The  year  1834  closed  the  fii-st  half  century  of  Corean  Chris- 
tianity. 

In  this  chapter,  the  moral  weakness  of  Roman  Catholic  methods 
of  evangelization  in  Corea,  and  elsewhere  in  Asia,  has  been  revealed. 
It  must  be  i-emembered  that  the  Corean  converts  wei'e  taught  to 
believe  not  only  in  the  ecclesiastical  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  but 
also  in  the  righteousness  of  his  claim  to  temporal  power  as  the 
Vicar  of  Heaven.  Untaught  in  the  Scriptures  of  the  New  Testament, 
and  doubtless  ignorant  of  the  words  of  Jesus — “ My  kingdom  is 
not  of  this  world  ; if  my  kingdom  were  of  this  woi-ld,  then  would 
my  servants  fight  ” — the  Coreans  suspected  no  blasphemy  in  the 
papal  claim.  Seeing  the  Pope’s  political  power  upheld  by  the  pow- 
erful European  nations  then  under  Bourbon  rale,  the  Corean  Chris- 
tians, following  the  ethics  of  their  teachers,  played  the  part  of  trait- 
ors to  their  country  ; they  not  only  deceived  the  magistrates,  and 
violated  their  country’s  laws,  but,  as  the  letter  of  Alexander  Wang 
shows,  actually  invited  anned  invasion.  Hence  from  the  first 
Christianity  was  associated  in  patriotic  minds  with  treason  and 
robbery.  The  French  missionary  as  the  forerunner  of  the  French 
soldier  and  invader,  the  priest  as  the  pilot  of  the  gunboat,  were  not 
mere  imaginings,  but,  as  the  subsequent  narrative  shows,  strict  logic 
and  actual  fact.  It  is  the  narrative  of  friends,  not  foes,  that,  later, 
shows  us  a bishop  acting  as  spy  and  pilot  on  a French  man-of-war, 
a priest  as  guide  to  a buccaneering  raid  ; and,  after  the  story  of 
papal  Christianity,  the  inevitable  “ French  expedition.” 


1 While  off  the  island  of  Wen-san,  according  to  Dallet,  some  of  the  native 
Christians,  attracted  by  the  legend  in  Chinese  characters  on  the  flag  “The 
Religion  of  Jesus  Christ,”  came  on  board.  “A  Protestant  minister  saluted 
them  with  the  words  which  are  sacramental  among  the  pagans,  ‘ May  the 
spirits  of  the  earth  bless  you  !’  At  these  words  the  neophytes,  seeing  that  they 
had  been  deceived,  and  that  a snare  had  been  laid  for  their  good  faith,  re- 
tired in  all  haste  without  ever  returning  the  salute,  and  made  no  further  visits 
to  the  ships.” 


CHAPTER  XLI. 


THE  ENTRANCE  OF  THE  FRENCH  MISSIONARIES— 1835-1845. 

The  French  Revolution,  and  the  wars  of  Napoleon  following, 
which  distracted  all  Europe  for  a period  of  over  twenty  years,  com- 
pletely disorganized  the  missionary  operations  of  the  Holy  See 
and  French  Roman  Catholic  Church.  On  the  restoration  of  the 
Bourbons,  and  the  strengthening  of  the  papal  throne  by  foreign 
bayonets,  the  stream  of  religious  activity  flowed  anew  into  its  old 
channels,  and  with  an  added  volume.  Missionary  zeal  in  the 
church  was  kindled  afresh,  and  the  prayers  of  the  Christians  in  the 
far  East  were  heard  at  the  court  of  St.  Peter.  It  was  resolved  to 
found  a mission  in  Corea,  directly  attached  to  the  Holy  See,  but  to 
be  under  the  care  of  the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris. 

Barthelemy  Brugiere,  then  a missionary  at  Bangkok,  Siam, 
offered  as  a volunteer,  and  in  1832  was  nominated  apostolic  Vicar 
of  Corea.  He  reached  Shing-king,  but  was  seized  with  sudden 
illness,  and  died  October  20,  1835.  Pierre  Philibert  Maubant,  his 
host,  stepped  into  the  place  of  his  fallen  comrade,  and  with  five 
Corean  Christians  left  Fung-Wang  Chang,  crossed  the  neutral 
strip,  and  the  Yalu  River  on  the  ice.  Dodging  the  sentinels  at  Ai- 
chiu,  he  entered  Corea  as  a thread  enters  the  needle’s  eye.  They 
crawled  through  a water-drain  in  the  wall,  and  despite  the  barking 
of  a dog,  got  into  the  city.  Resting  several  hours,  they  slid  out 
again  through  another  drain,  reaching  the  country  and  friends 
beyond.  Two  days’  journey  on  horses  brought  them  to  Seoul,  from 
which  Maubant,  the  first  Frenchman  who  had  penetrated  the 
hermit  kingdom,  or  who,  in  Corean  phrase,  had  committed  pem- 
kiong  (violation  of  the  frontier),  wrote  to  his  friends  in  Paris. 

Maubant’s  first  duty  was  to  order  back  a Chinese  priest  who 
refused  to  learn  Corean,  or  to  obey  any  but  the  Bishop  of  Peking. 
With  the  couriers  who  escorted  the  refractory  Chinaman  to  the 
frontier,  went  three  young  men  to  study  at  the  college  in  Macao. 
At  the  Border  Gate  they  met  Jacques  Honore  Chastan  a young 


362 


COREA. 


French  priest,  who,  on  the  dark  night  of  January  17,  1837,  passed 
the  custom-house  of  Ai-chiu  disguised  as  a Corean  widower  in 
mourning,  and  joined  Maubant  in  Seoul.  Nearly  one  year  later, 
December  19,  1838,  Laurent  Marie-Joseph  Imbert,  a bishop,  ran 
the  gauntlet  of  wilderness,  ice,  and  guards,  and  took  up  his  resi- 
dence under  the  shadow  of  the  king’s  palace. 

Visits,  masses,  and  preaching  now  went  on  vigorously.  The 
Christians  at  the  end  of  1837  numbered  6,000,  and  in  1838,  9,000. 
Up  to  January  16,  1839,  the  old  regent  being  averse  from  persecu- 
tion, the  work  went  on  unharmed,  but  on  that  day,  the  court  party 
in  favor  of  extirpating  Christianity,  having  gained  the  upper  hand, 
hounded  on  the  police  in  the  king’s  name.  The  visitation  of  every 
group  of  five  houses  in  all  the  eight  provinces  was  ordered.  Hun- 
dreds of  suspects  were  at  once  seized  and  brought  to  trial.  In  June, 
before  the  death  of  the  old  regent,  the  uncle  of  the  young  king  (Hen- 
chong,  1834-1849)  and  the  implacable  enemy  of  the  Christians  ob- 
tained control  of  power,  and  at  an  extraordinary  council  of  the 
ministers,  held  July  7,  1839,  a new  decree  was  issued  in  the  regent’s 
name.  The  persecution  now  broke  out  with  redoubled  violence. 
In  a few  days,  three  native  lay  leaders  were  beheaded,  and  a score 
of  women  and  children  suffered  death.  To  stay  the  further 
shedding  of  blood,  Bishop  Imbert,  who  had  escaped  to  an  island, 
came  out  of  his  hiding-place,  and  on  August  10th  delivered  himself 
up  and  ordered  Maubant  and  Chastan  to  do  the  same.  The  three 
willing  martyrs  met  in  chains  before  the  same  tribunal.  During 
three  days  they  were  put  to  trial  and  torture,  thence  transferred 
to  the  Kum-pu,  or  prison  for  state  criminals  of  rank.  They  were 
again  tried,  beaten  with  sixty-six  strokes  of  the  paddle,  and  con- 
demned to  die  under  the  sword,  September  21,  1839. 

On  that  day,  the  inspector  and  one  hundred  soldiers  took  their 
place  on  the  execution  ground,  not  near  the  city  gate,  but  close  to 
the  river.  A pole  fixed  in  the  earth  bore  a flag  inscribed  with  the 
death-sentence.  Pinioned  and  stripped  of  their  upper  clothing,  a 
stick  was  passed  between  the  elbows  and  backs  of  the  prisoners, 
and  an  arrow,  feather  end  up,  run  through  the  flesh  of  each  ear. 
Their  faces  were  first  wet  with  water  and  then  powdered  with 
chalk.  Three  executioners  then  marched  round,  brandishing  their 
staves,  while  the  crowd  raised  a yell  of  insult  and  mockery.  A 
dozen  soldiers,  sword  in  hand,  now  began  prancing  around  the 
kneeling  victims,  engaging  in  mock  combat,  but  delivering  their 
blows  at  the  victims.  Only  when  weary  of  their  sport,  the  human 


ENTRANCE  OP  THE  FRENCH  MISSIONARIES. 


3G3 


butchers  relieved  the  agony  of  their  victims  by  the  decapitating 
blow.  The  heads  were  presented  to  the  inspector  on  a board,  and 
the  corpses,  after  public  exposure  during  three  days,  were  buried  in 
the  sand  by  the  river  banks. 

On  the  day  after  the  burial,  three  Christians  attempted  to  re- 
move the  bodies,  but  the  government  spies  lying  in  wait  caught 
them.  As  of  old  in  Rome,  when  the  primitive  Christians  crawled 
stealthily  at  night  through  the  arches  of  the  Coliseum,  into  the  arena, 
and  groping  about  in  the  sand  for  the  bones  of  Ignatius  left  after 
the  lion’s  feast,  bore  them  to  honored  sepulture,  so  these  Corean 
Christians  with  equal  faith  and  valor  again  approached  the  bloody 
sand  by  the  Han  River.  Twenty  v days  after  the  first  attempt,  a 
party  of  seven  or  eight  men  succeeded  in  bearing  away  the  bodies 
of  the  martyrs  to  Noku,  about  eight  miles  north  of  Seoul. 

Thus  died  the  first  European  missionaries  who  entered  “ the 
forbidden  land.”  As  in  the  old  fable  of  the  lion’s  den,  the  foot- 
prints all  pointed  one  way. 

With  the  foreign  leaders  there  perished  no  less  than  one 
hundred  and  thirty  of  their  converts,  seventy  by  decapitation,  and 
the  others  by  strangulation,  torture,  or  the  result  of  their  wounds.1 
In  November,  1839,  a new  edict  in  the  vernacular  was  posted  up 
all  over  the  country.  Six  bitter  years  passed  before  the  Christians 
again  had  a foreign  pastor. 

Great  events  now  began  to  ripen  in  China.  The  opium  war 
of  1840-42  broke  out.  The  “ Western  Barbarians”  held  the  chief 
cities  of  the  China  coast  from  Hong-Kong  to  Shanghae,  and  the 
military  weakness  of  the  colossal  empire  was  demonstrated.  The 
French,  though  having  nothing  to  do  with  this  first  quarrel  of 
China  with  Europe,  were  on  the  alert  for  any  advantage  to  be 
gained  in  the  far  East.  In  1841,  Louis  Philippe  sent  out  the  war 
vessels  Erigone  and  Favorite,  to  occupy  if  possible  some  island  to 
the  south  of  Japan,  which  would  be  valuable  for  strategic  and  com- 
mercial purposes,  and  to  make  treaties  of  trade  and  friendship  with 
Japan,  and  especially  with  Corea. 

1 By  poetic  justice,  the  chief  instigators  of  this  persecution  came  eacli  to  a 
bad  end.  Of  the  court  ministers,  one,  having  provoked  the  king’s  jealousy,  was 
obliged  by  royal  order  to  poison  himself  at  a banquet,  in  December,  1845,  and 
the  other,  falling  into  disgrace,  was  sent  to  exile,  in  which  he  shortly  died. 
The  chief  informer,  who  had  hoped  for  reward  in  high  office,  obtained  only  a 
minor  position,  with  little  honor  and  less  salary.  He  was  afterward  exiled, 
and  in  1862,  having  headed  a local  uprising,  was  put  to  death,  his  body  was 
minced  up,  and  the  fragments  were  exhibited  through  the  provinces. 


COREA. 


364 

The  Erigone  cast  anchor  at  Macao,  September  7,  1841,  and 
Captain  Cecile  awaited  events.  Moving ‘north  in  February,  1842, 
with  Andrew  Kim,  the  Corean  student,  as  interpreter,  on  the  Erig- 
one, and  Thomas  Tsoi,  his  companion,  on  the  Favorite,  the  French 
captains,  hearing  of  the  sudden  conclusion  of  the  war,  gave  up  the 
idea  of  opening  Corea. 

The  two  Coreans,  with  two  French  priests,  engaged  a Chinese 
junk,  and  landed  on  the  coast  of  Shing-king,  October  25,  1842. 
On  December  23d,  Kim  set  out  for  the  Border  Gate,  and  within  two 
leagues  of  it  met  the  outward-bound  embassy.  Each  of  the  three 
hundred  persons  had  his  passport  at  his  girdle.  Stopping  to  see 
them  file  past,  he  saluted  one  who  was  a Christian,  and  had  in  his 
belt  letters  from  Maubant  and  Chastan,  written  before  their  execu- 


tion, and  from  the  natives.  Unable  to  go  back  with  Andrew  to 
Ai-chiu,  as  every  name  on  the  embassy’s  list  was  registered,  the 
man  went  on  to  Peking.  Andrew  Kim,  by  mingling  among  the 
drovers  and  huge  cattle  returning  from  the  fair,  ran  the  blockade 
at  Ai-chiu ; but  on  the  next  day,  having  walked  all  night,  he  ap- 
plied for  lodgings  at  an  inn  for  shelter,  and  was  recognized  as  a 
stranger.  Fearful  of  being  arrested  as  a border-ruffian  from  the 
neutral  strip,  he  took  to  his  heels,  recrossed  the  Yalu,  and  after 
resting  at  Fung-Wang  Chang,  rejoined  his  friends  at  Mukden. 

On  December  31,  1843,  Jean  Joseph  Ferreol  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Corea,  and  resolved  to  cross  the  frontier,  not  at  Ai-chiu, 
but  at  Hun-cliun,  on  the  Tumen.  Andrew  Kim  exploring  the  way, 
after  a month’s  journey  through  ice  and  snow,  mountains  and 
forests,  reached  Hun-chun,  February  25,  1845.  The  native  Chris- 
tians, having  been  duly  instructed,  had  arrived  at  Kion-wen  a 


ENTRANCE  OF  THE  FRENCH  MISSIONARIES. 


365 


month  before.  For  recognition,  Andrew  was  to  hold  a blue  kerchief 
in  his  hand  and  have  a little  red  bag  of  tea  at  his  girdle.  At  the 
fair  which  opened  at  Ivion-wen  on  the  28th,  the  Christians  met. 
The  result  of  their  conference  was  that  Ai-chiu  was  declared  safer 
even  than  Kion-wen. 

Since  1839,  the  government  had  tripled  its  vigilance,  and 
doubled  the  guards  on  the  frontier.  No  one  could  pass  the  gate 


at  Ai-chiu  who  had  not  a passport  stamped  with  the  chief  inspec- 
tor’s seal,  bestowed  only  after  the  closest  scrutiny  and  persistent 
cross-questioning.  On  it  was  written  the  name  and  place  of  birth 
and  residence  of  the  holder,  and  after  return  from  China  or  the 
fair  it  must  be  given  up.  The  result  of  these  stringent  regulations 
was  to  drive  the  missionax-ies  to  find  a path  seaward.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1844,  of  seven  converts  fi-om  Seoul,  attempting  to  get  to  the 
Border  Gate,  to  meet  Feri'eol,  only  three  were  able  to  pass  Ai- 
chiu.  The  other  foui*,  who  had  the  wig,  hair  pins,  and  mourning 
costume  of  a widower  for  Ferreol,  were  unable  to  satisfy  their  ques- 
tionei*s,  and  so  returned.  At  the  Border  Gate,  Ferreol,  after  seeing 
the  caravan  pass,  ordered  Andrew  Kim  to  enter  alone,  while  he 
returned  and  sailed  soon  after  to  Macao.  Andrew,  with  the  aid  of 
his  three  fiiends,  who  met  him  at  a lonely  spot  at  some  distance 
from  Ai-chiu,  reached  Seoul,  January  8,  1845. 

As  soon  as  resources  and  oppoi'tunity  would  permit,  Andrew 
collected  a crew  of  eleven  fellow-believers,  only  four  of  whom  had 
ever  seen  the  sea,  and  none  of  whom  knew  their  destination,  and 
equipped  with  but  a single  compass,  put  to  sea  in  a rude  fishing- 
boat,  April  24, 1845.  Despite  the  storms  and  bafiling  winds,  this  un- 
couth mass  of  firewood,  which  the  Chinese  sailors  jeeiingly  dubbed 
“ the  Shoe,”  reached  Shanghae  in  June.  Andrew  Kim,  never  before 


866 


COREA. 


at  sea  except  as  a passenger,  had  brought  this  uncalked,  deckless 
and  unseaworthy  scow  across  the  entire  breadth  of  the  Yellow  Sea. 

After  the  ordeal  of  the  mandarin’s  questions,1  and  visits  and 
kindly  hospitality  from  the  British  naval  officers  and  consul,  he 
reached  his  French  friends  at  the  Roman  Catholic  mission. 

The  beacon  tires  were  now  blazing  on  Quelpart,  and  from  head- 
land to  headland  on  the  mainland,  telegraphing  the  news  of  “ foreign 
ships  ” to  Seoul.  From  June  *25tli  until  the  end  of  July,  Cap- 
tain Edward  Belcher,2  of  the  British  ship  Samarang,  was  engaged 
in  surveying  off  Quelpart  and  the  south  coast.  Even  after  the  ship 
left  for  Nagasaki,  the  magistrates  of  the  coast  were  ordered  to 
maintain  strict  watch  for  all  seafarers  from  strange  countries.  This 
made  the  return  of  Andrew  Kim  doubly  dangerous. 

Bishop  Ferreol  came  up  from  Macao  to  Shanghae,  and  on  Sun- 
day, August  17th,  Andrew  Kim  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood. 
On  September  1st,  with  Ferreol  and  Marie  Antoine  Nicholas  Dave- 
luy,  another  French  priest,  he  set  sail  in  “the  Shoe,”  now  chris- 
tened the  “Raphael,”  and  turned  toward  the  land  of  martyrdom. 
It  was  like  Greatheart  approaching  Giant  Despair’s  Castle. 

The  voyage  was  safely,  though  tediously,  made  past  Quelpart, 
and  through  the  labyrinth  of  islands  off  Chulla.  On  October  12th, 
the  Frenchmen,  donning  the  garb  of  native  noblemen  in  mourning, 
and  baffling  the  sentinels,  landed  at  night  in  an  obscure  place  on 
the  coast.  Soon  after  this  Daveluy  was  learning  the  language 
among  some  Christian  villagers,  who  cultivated  tobacco  in  a wild 
part  of  the  country.  The  bishop  went  to  Seoul  as  the  safest  place 
to  hide  and  work  in,  while  the  farmer-sailors,  after  seven  months’ 
absence,  returned  to  their  hoes  and  their  native  fields. 

1 So  fearless  and  generous  a soul  as  Andrew  Kim,  who  could  yet  follow  the 
ethics  and  example  of  his  teachers  in  repeatedly  practising  deception  and  vio- 
lating his  country’s  laws  at  Ai-chiu,  scrupled  not  to  lie  to  the  mandarin  at 
Shanghae,  and  tell  him  that  he  and  his  crew  had  been  accidentally  driven  out 
to  sea.  As  in  the  later  case  of  the  robbery  of  the  regent’s  tomb,  “ the  end 
justified  the  means.” 

2 The  voyage  of  this  officer,  which  added  so  much  to  science,  resulted  in 
making  Quelpart  and  Beaufort  Islands,  Port  Hamilton,  and  Mount  Auckland  as 
well  known  in  geography  as  the  names  of  Her  Majesty’s  servants  were  known 
in  British  politics.  The  visitors  were  treated  with  courtesy,  and  even  their  sur- 
vey-marks, stakes,  and  whitewashed  stones  were  carefully  set  up  when  washed 
away  by  the  storm,  or  disturbed  by  cattle.  The  Coreans,  however,  drove  their 
beeves  well  away  from  the  Englishmen,  who  longed  for  fresh  meat. 


CHAPTER  XLII. 


THE  WALLS  OF  ISOLATION  SAPPED. 

While  the  three  priests  were  prosecuting  their  perilous  labors, 
Thomas  Tsoi,  the  Corean  student  from  Macao  with  Maistre,  a new 
missionary,  were  on  their  way  through  Manchuria  to  Hun-chun. 
Arriving  after  a seventeen  days’  march,  they  were  seized  by  Man- 
chiu  officers,  reprimanded,  and  sent  back  to  Mukden. 

Andrew  Kim,  by  order  of  Bishop  Ferreol,  went  to  Whang-hai  by 
water,  to  examine  into  the  feasibility  of  making  that  province  a 
gateway  of  entrance.  The  sea  was  full  of  Chinese  junks,  the  her- 
ring fishery  being  at  its  height.  Watch-towers  dotted  the  hills,  and 
the  beach  was  patrolled  by  soldiers  to  prevent  communication  with 
shore.  Andrew,  coming  ostensibly  to  buy  a cargo  of  fish,  was  en- 
abled to  sail  among  the  islands,  to  locate  the  rocks  and  sandspits, 
and  to  make  a chart  of  the  coast.  Deeming  the  route  practicable, 
he  hailed  a Chinese  junk,  and  after  conference,  confided  to  the  cap- 
tain the  mail-bag  of  the  mission,  which  contained  also  the  charts 
and  two  maps  of  Corea.  Unfortunately  these  documents  were  seized 
by  the  spies,  and  Andrew  Kim,  delayed  while  the  cargo  of  fish  was 
drying,  was  arrested  on  the  suspicion  of  being  a Chinaman.  He  was 
sent  to  Seoul,  and  while  in  prison  heard  of  the  French  ships  which 
were  at  that  moment  vainly  trying  to  find  the  mouth  of  the  Han 
River  and  the  channel  to  the  capital.  Meanwhile,  from  his  hiding- 
place,  Ferreol  wrote  to  Captain  Cecile,  who  commanded  the  fleet  of 
three  war-vessels. 

The  object  of  this  visit  was  to  hold  a conference  with  the  king’s 
ministers,  and  demand  satisfaction  for  the  murder  of  Imbert 
Chastan  and  Maubant  in  1839.  After  some  coast  surveys  made,  and 
the  despatch  of  a threatening  letter,  the  ships  withdrew.  Ferreol’s 
note  arrived  too  late,  and  Andrew  Kim’s  fate  was  sealed. 

While  in  prison,  Andrew  was  employed  in  coloring,  copying, 
and  translating  two  English  maps  of  the  world,  one  of  which  was 
for  the  king,  and  composing  a summary  of  geography.  In  a letter 


368 


COREA. 


in  Latin  to  Ferreol,  dated  August  26th,  he  narrated  his  capture 
and  trial.  On  September  16th,  he  was  led  out  to  trial.  The 
sentence-flag  bore  the  inscription  : “Put  to  death  for  communicat- 
ing with  the  western  barbarians,”  and  the  full  programme  of  cruelty 
was  carried  out.  Four  women  and  four  men  were  put  to  death  in 
the  persecution  which  followed. 

Maistre  and  Thomas  Tsoi  went  to  Macao  and  there  found  the 
French  frigates  La  Gloire  and  La  Victorieuse,  ready  to  sail  north 
for  an  answer  to  Captain  Cecile’s  letter.  Gladly  welcomed  by  Cap- 
tain Pierre,  they  went  aboard  July  12th.  On  August  10th,  while 
under  sail  in  a group  of  islands  off  Chulla,  in  latitude  35°  45'  and 
longitude  124°  8',  in  water  which  the  English  charts  marked  at 
twelve  fathoms  deep,  both  vessels  grounded  simultaneously.  The 
high  tides  for  which  this  coast  is  noted  falling  rapidly,  both  ves- 
sels became  total  wrecks.  The  largest  of  the  La  Gloire ’s  boats  was 
at  once  sent  to  Shanghae  for  assistance,  and  the  six  hundred  men 
made  their  camp  at  Kokun  Island.  Kindly  treated  and  furnished 
with  provisions  as  they  were,  the  Frenchmen  during  their  stay 
were  rigidly  secluded,  and  at  night  cordons  of  boats  with  lanterns 
guarded  against  all  communication  with  the  mainland.  Thomas 
Tsoi  acted  as  dumb  interpreter,  with  pencil,  in  Chinese,  and  though 
hearing  every  word  of  the  Corean  magistrates  was  not  recognized. 
Though  meeting  fellow  Christians,  he  was  unable  to  get  inland,  and 
Ferreol’s  messengers  to  the  sea-shore  arrived  after  an  English 
ship  from  Shanghae  had  taken  the  ci'ews  away. 

The  Corean  government,  fearing  1 further  visits  of  the  outside 
barbarians,  sent  an  answer  to  Admii-al  Cecile,  directing  it  to  Cap- 
tain Pierre  at  Macao,  by  way  of  Peking.2  They  explained  why  they 
treated  Frenchmen  shipwrecked  kindly  ; but  sent  Frenchmen  dis- 
guised to  execution.3  When  Admiral  Cecile  reached  Paris  in 


1 These  were  the  first  official  relations  of  France  with  Corea  ; or,  as  a native 
would  say,  between  Tai-pep-kuk  and  Cho-sen  ; the  expression  for  France 
being  Tai-pep,  and  for  a Frenchman — curiously  enough — Pepin. 

2 Inside  the  country,  the  frequent  appearance  of  the  foreign  ships  was  the 
subject  of  everyday  talk,  and  the  news  in  this  nation  of  gossips  spread  like  a 
prairie  fire,  or  a rolling  avalanche.  By  the  time  the  stories  reached  the  north- 
ern provinces  whole  fleets  of  French  ships  lay  off  the  coast.  Their  moral 
effect  was  something  like  that  among  the  blacks  in  the  Southern  States  during 
the  civil  war,  when  the  “ Lincoln  gunboats”  hove  in  sight.  The  people  jest- 
ingly called  the  foreign  vessels  “ The  authorities  down  the  River.” 

3 For  changing  their  name  and  garments,  sleeping  by  day,  going  abroad  at 
night,  associating  with  rebels,  criminals  and  villains,  and  entering  the  king- 


THE  WALLS  OP  ISOLATION  SAPPED. 


369 


1848,  one  of  the  periodical  French  revolutions  had  broken  out  in 
Paris,  and  a war  at  the  ends  of  the  earth  was  out  of  the  question. 
The  French  government  neglected  to  send  a vessel  to  take  away 
the  effects  saved  from  the  wreck.  The  Coreans  promptly  put  the 
cannon  to  use,  and  from  them,  as  models,  manufactured  others  for 
the  forts  built  to  resist  “the  Pepins”  in  1866,  and  the  Americans 
in  1871. 

Once  more  Maistre  and  Thomas  Tsoi  essayed  to  enter  the 
guarded  peninsula,  by  sailing  early  in  1848  in  a Chinese  junk  from 
Macao  to  Merin  Island  off  Whang-hai,  but  no  Christians  met  them. 
By  way  of  Shanghae,  they  then  went  into  Shing-king,  and  in  De- 
cember to  the  Border  Gate,  meeting  couriers  from  Bishop  Ferreol. 
On  a fiercely  cold,  windy,  and  dark  night,  which  drove  the  soldiers 
indoors  to  the  more  congenial  pleasure  of  the  long  pipe,  cards,  and 
cup  on  the  oven-warmed  floors,  Thomas  Tsoi  got  safely  through 
Ai-chiu,  and  in  a few  days  was  in  Seoul,  and  later  in  Chulla.  The 
work  of  propagation  now  took  a fresh  start.  A number  of  religious 
works  composed  or  translated  into  the  vulgar  tongue  were  printed 
in  pamphlet  form  from  a native  printing  press,  and  widely  circu- 
lated. In  1850,  the  Christians  numbered  eleven  thousand,  and  five 
young  men  were  studying  for  the  priesthood.  Regular  mails,  sewn 
into  the  thick  cotton  coats  of  men  in  the  embassy,  were  sent  to  and 
brought  from  China.  A French  whaler  having  grounded  off  the 
coast,  the  French  consul  at  Shanghae,  with  two  Englishmen,  came 
to  reclaim  the  vessel’s  effects,  and  meeting  three  young  men  sent  by 
the  ever-alert  Thomas  Tsoi,  took  them  back  to  Shanghae,  the 
third  remaining  to  meet  his  comrades  on  their  return  with  fresh 
missionaries  to  come.  After  still  another  failure  to  enter  Corea, 
Maistre  set  foot  in  Chulla-do,  by  way  of  Kokun  Island,  even  while 
the  fire-signals  were  blazing  on  the  headlands  on  account  of  the 
presence  of  Russian  ships.* 1 


dom  clandestinely,  the  missionaries  were  put  to  death  ; and  no  comparison 
could  be  drawn  to  mitigate  their  sentence  between  them  and  innocent  ship- 
wrecked men. 

1 Other  nations  besides  France  now  began  to  learn  something  of  the  twin 
hermits  of  the  East,  Cho-sen  and  Nippon.  During  1852,  the  Russian  frigate 
Pallas  sailed  along  the  east  coast  up  to  the  Tumen  River,  making  no  landing, 
but  keeping  at  a distance  of  from  two  to  five  miles  from  the  shore  in  order  to 
avoid  shoals  and  rocks.  The  object  of  the  Pallas  was  to  trace  and  map  the 
shore  line.  In  1855,  the  French  war-vessel  Virginie  continued  the  work 
begun  by  the  Pallas,  and  at  the  end  of  her  voyage  the  whole  coast  from  Fu- 
san  to  the  Tumen  was  known  with  some  accuracy,  and  mapped  out  with  Euro- 
24 


870 


COREA. 


Ferreol,  worn  out  with  his  labors,  after  lying  paralytic  for  many 
months,  died  February  3,  1853  ; but  in  March,  1854,  Janson,  mak- 
ing a second  attempt,  entered  Corea,  having  crossed  the  Yellow 
Sea  in  a junk,  which  immediately  took  back  three  native  students 
for  Macao.  Janson  died  in  Seoul,  of  cerebral  fever,  June  18,  1854. 

In  these  years,  1853  and  1854,  Commodore  Perry  and  the 
American  squadron  were  in  the  waters  of  the  far  East,  driving 
the  wedge  of  civilization  into  Japan,  and  sapping  her  walls  of  se- 
clusion. The  American  flag,  however,  was  not  yet  seen  in  Corean 
waters,  though  the  court  of  Seoul  were  kept  informed  of  Perry’s 
movements. 

A fresh  reinforcement  of  missionaries  to  storm  the  citadel  of 
paganism,  Bishop  Simeon,  Francois  Berneux,  with  two  young 
priests,  Michel  Alexandre  Petitnicholas  and  Charles  Antoine 
Pourthie,  set  sail  from  Shangliae  in  a junk,  and,  after  many  adven- 
tures, arrived  at  Seoul  via  Whang-hai,  while  Feron  (of  later  buc- 
caneering fame)  followed  on  a Corean  smuggling  vessel,  standing 
unexpectedly  before  his  bishop  in  the  capital,  March  31,  1857.  A 
synod  of  all  the  missionaries  was  now  held,  at  which  Berneux  conse- 
crated Daveluy  as  his  fellow  bishop.  Maistre  died  December  20th. 
The  faith  was  now  spread  to  Quelpart  by  a native  of  that  island,  who, 
having  been  shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of  China,  was  carried  by  an 
English  ship  to  Hong-Kong,  where  he  met  a Corean  student  from 
Macao  and  was  converted.  The  Homan  Catholic  population  of 
Corea  in  1857  was  reckoned  at  16,500. 

Communication  with  the  native  Christians  living  near  Nagasaki, 
and  then  under  the  harrow  of  persecution,  took  place.  The  cholera 
imported  from  Japan  swept  away  over  400,000  victims  in  Corea. 
Thus  does  half  the  world  not  know  how  the  other  half  lives.  How 
many  Americans  ever  heard  of  this  stroke  of  pestilence  in  the  her- 
mit nation  ? 

In  1860,  war  with  China  broke  out,  the  French  and  English 
forces  took  the  Peiho  forts,  entered  Peking,  sacked  the  summer 
palace  of  the  Son  of  Heaven,  a few  thousand  European  troops 
destroying  the  military  prestige  of  the  Chinese  colossus.  The 


pean  names,  at  once  numerous  and  prophetic.  The  coast  line  of  Tartary  or 
Manchuria — at  that  time  a Chinese  province — was  also  surveyed,  mapped,  and 
made  ready  for  the  Czar’s  use  and  that  of  his  ambassador  in  1860. 

Pallas  and  Virginie  ! The  names  are  suggestive  of  the  maiden  diplomats 
victory  of  General  Ignatieff,  of  whom  more  anon. 


THE  WALLS  OF  ISOLATION  SAPPED. 


371 


Chinese  emperor  fled  into  Shing-king,  toward  Corea.  The  news 
produced  a lively  effect  in  Cho  sen,  especially  at  court.1 

The  utter  loss  of  Chinese  prestige  struck  terror  into  all  hearts. 
For  sis  centuries,  China,  the  Tai-kuk  (Great  Empire),  had  been,  in 
Corean  eyes,  the  synonym  and  symbol  of  invincible  power,  and 
“the  Son  of  Heaven,  who  commands  ten  thousand  chariots,”  the 
one  able  to  move  all  the  earth.  Copies  of  the  treaty  made  between 
China  and  the  allies,  granting  freedom  of  trade  and  religion,  were 
soon  read  in  Corea,  causing  intense  alarm. 

But  the  after-clap  of  news,  that  turned  the  first  storm  of  excite- 
ment into  a tempest  of  rage  and  fear,  was  the  treaty  with  Russia. 
General  Ignatieff,  the  brilliant  and  vigorous  diplomatist  then  but 
twenty-eight  years  old  and  fresh  on  the  soil  of  Cathay,  obtained,  in 
1860,  after  the  allied  plenipotentiaries  had  gone  home,  the  signature 
of  Prince  Kung  to  the  cession  of  the  whole  Ussuri  province.  The 
tread  of  the  Great  Bear  had  been  so  steadily  silent,  that  before 
either  Great  Britain  or  Cho-sen  knew  it,  his  foot  had  been  planted 
ten  degrees  nearer  the  temperate  zone.  A rich  and  fertile  region, 
well  watered  by  the  Amoor  and  Sungari  Rivers,  bordered  by  the 
Pacific,  with  a coast  full  of  harbors,  and  comprising  an  area  as  large 
as  France,  was  thus  ceded  to  Russia.  The  Manchiu  rulers  of 
China  had  actually  surrendered  their  ancestral  homeland  to  the 
wily  Muscovites.  The  boundaries  of  Siberia  now  touched  the 
Tumen.  The  Russian  bear  jostled  the  Corean  tiger. 

With  France  on  the  right,  Russia  on  the  left,  China  humbled, 
and  Japan  opened  to  the  western  world,  what  wonder  that  the 
rulers  in  Seoul  trembled  ? 

The  results  to  Corean  Christianity  were  that,  in  less  than  a de- 


1 A noble  of  high  rank  presented  to  the  council  of  ministers  a memorial, 
setting  forth  the  dangers  that  then  menaced  Cho-sen,  and  urging  that  extraor- 
dinary means  be  put  forth  to  meet  the  emergencies.  He  proposed  that  the 
national  policy  of  armed  neutrality  should  be  preserved,  that  the  conquered 
emperor  of  China  should  not  enter  Cho-sen,  that  the  frontier  should  be 
strengthened  against  a possible  invasion  of  the  border-ruffians  inhabiting  the 
neutral  strip.  Taking  advantage  of  the  situation,  these  men,  banding  together 
with  Chinese  adventurers  and  Corean  refugees,  might  make  a descent  in  force 
into  the  kingdom.  Finally,  the  supreme  danger  that  filled  all  minds  was  the 
threatened  invasion  of  the  French.  He  recommended  that  the  castle  of  Tong- 
nai,  near  Fusan,  and  the  western  strongholds  of  Nam-au,  Pu-pion,  and  In-chiun 
(the  port  opened  in  1882),  should  be  strongly  garrisoned  and  strengthened ; and 
that  a new  citadel  be  built  on  the  island  of  Kang-wa,  to  command  the  river  and 
the  entrance  to  the  capital.  (See  map,  page  190. ) 


372 


COREA. 


cade,  thousands  of  natives  liad  fled  their  country  and  were  settled  in 
the  Russian  villages. 

At  the  capital  all  official  business  was  suspended,  and  many 
families  of  rank  fled  to  the  mountains.  The  nobles  or  officials 
who  could  not  quit  their  posts  sent  off  their  wives  and  children. 
All  this  turned  to  the  temporary  advantage  of  the  missionaries. 
In  many  instances,  people  of  rank  humbly  sought  the  good  favor 
and  protection  of  the  Christians.  Medals,  crosses,  and  books  of 
religion  were  bought  in  quantities.  Some  even  publicly  wore 
them  on  their  dress,  hoping  for  safety  when  the  dreaded  invasion 
should  come.  The  government  now  proceeded  to  raise  war-funds, 
levying  chiefly  on  the  rich  merchants,  who  were  threatened  with 
torture  and  death  in  case  of  refusal.  A conscription  of  able-bodied 
men  was  ordered,  and  bombs,  called  “French  pieces,”  and  small- 
bore cannon  were  manufactured.  In  a foundry  in  the  capital 
heavy  guns  were  cast  after  the  model  of  those  left  by  the  wreck  of 
the  La  Gloire.  The  Kang-wa  forts  were  built  and  garrisoned.  In 
the  midst  of  these  war  preparations,  the  missionary  body  was  rein- 
forced by  the  arrival  of  four  of  their  countrymen,  who,  by  way  of 
Merin  Island,  set  foot  on  the  soil  of  their  martyrdom  October, 
18(51.  Their  names  were  Landre,  Joanno,  Ridel,  and  Calais.  This 
3’ear  the  number  of  Christians  reached  18,000. 

Indirect  attempts  to  insert  the  crowbars  of  diplomacy  in  the 
chinks  of  Corea’s  wall  of  seclusion  were  made  about  this  time  by 
France  and  England,  and  by  Russia  at  another  point.  Japan  was 
in  each  case  the  fulcrum.  On  account  of  the  petty  trade  between 
Tsushima  and  Fusan,  Earl  Russell  wished  to  have  Great  Britain 
included  as  a co-trader  with  the  peninsula.  The  Russians  the 
same  year  occupied  a station  on  Tsu  Island,  commanding  the  coun- 
tries on  either  side  ; but  under  protest  from  Yedo,  backed  by  Brit- 
ish men-of  war,  abandoned  their  purpose.  In  1862,  while  the 
members  of  the  Japanese  embassy  from  the  Tycoon  were  in  Paris, 
the  government  of  Napoleon  HI.  requested  their  influence  in  the 
opening  of  Corea  to  French  trade  and  residence.  At  this  time, 
however,  the  Japanese  had  their  hands  full  of  their  own  troubles 
at  home,  nor  had  the  court  at  Seoul  sent  either  envoys  or  presents 
since  1832.  They  should  have  done  so  in  1852,  at  the  accession 
of  the  new  sho-gun,  but  not  relishing  the  humiliation  of  coming 
only  to  Tsushima,  and  knowing  the  weakened  state  of  their  former 
conquerors,  they  were  now  ready  to  defy  them. 

One  new  missionary  and  two  returned  native  students  entered 


THE  WALLS  OF  ISOLATION  SAPPED. 


373 


in  March,  1863.  The  Ni  dynasty,  founded  in  1392,  came  to  an  end 
on  January  15,  1864,  by  the  King  Chul-chong,  who  had  no  child, 
dying  before  he  had  nominated  an  heir.  This  was  the  signal  for 
fresh  palace  intrigues,  and  excitement  among  the  nobles  and 
political  parties.  The  three  widows  of  the  kings  who  had  reigned 
since  1831  were  still  living.  The  oldest  of  these.  Queen  Cho, 
at  once  seized  the  royal  seal  and  emblems  of  authority,  which 
high-handed  move  made  her  the  mistress  of  the  situation.  Craftily 
putting  aside  her  nephew  Cho  Sung,  she  nominated  for  the  throne 
a lad  then  but  twelve  years  old,  and  son  of  Ni  Kung,  one  of  the 
royal  princes.  This  latter  person  was  supposed  to  be  indifferent 
to  politics,  but  no  sooner  was  his  son  made  the  sovereign,  than  his 
slumbering  ambition  woke  to  lion-like  vigor.  This  man,  to  use  a 
Corean  phrase,  had  “a  heart  of  stone,  and  bowels  of  iron.”  He 
seemed  to  know  no  scruple,  pity,  or  fear.  Possessing  himself  of 
the  seal  and  royal  emblems,  he  was  made  Tai-wen  Kun  (Lord  of 
the  Great  Court — a rare  title  given  to  a noble  when  his  son  is 
made  king)  and  became  actual  regent.  This  Corean  mayor  of  the 
palace  held  the  l’eins  of  government  during  the  next  nine  years, 
ruling  with  power  like  that  of  an  absolute  despot.  He  was  a rabid 
hater  of  Christianity,  foreigners,  and  progress. 

In  spite  of  the  new  current  of  hostility  that  set  steadily  in,  the 
Christians  began  to  be  bold  even  to  defiance.  In  Kiung-sang  a fu- 
neral procession  carrying  two  hundred  lanterns,  bore  aloft  a huge 
cross,  and  chanted  responsive  prayers.  In  the  capital,  the  converts 
paraded  the  signs  of  the  Romish  cult.  A theological  training 
school  was  established  in  the  mountains,  four  new  missionaries 
entered  the  kingdom  through  Nai-po,  1976  baptisms  were  made 
during  the  year,  and,  with  much  literary  work  accomplished,  the 
printing-press  was  kept  busy. 

The  year  1866  is  phenomenal  in  Corean  history.  It  seemed  as 
if  the  governments  and  outlaws  alike,  of  many  nations,  had  conspired 
to  pierce  or  breach  the  walls  of  isolation  at  many  points.  Russians, 
Frenchmen,  Englishmen,  Americans,  Germans,  authorized  and  un- 
authorized, landed  to  trade,  rob,  kill,  or,  what  was  equally  ob- 
noxious to  the  regent  and  his  court,  to  make  treaties. 

In  January  the  Russians,  in  a war-vessel,  again  appeared  in 
Broughton’s  Bay,  and  demanded  the  right  of  trade.  At  the  same 
time  they  stated  that  some  Russian  troops  were  to  pass  the  frontier 
of  Ham-kiung  to  enforce  the  demand.  The  usual  stereotyped  re- 
sponse was  made,  that  Corea  was  a vassal  of  China,  and  could  not 


374 


COREA. 


treat  with  any  other  nation  without  permission  of  that  Power,  and 
that  a special  ambassador  charged  with  the  matter  would  be  im- 
mediately despatched  to  Peking,  etc. 

The  advent  of  the  double-headed  eagle  was  the  signal  foi 
lively  feeling  and  action  among  the  Christians  at  Seoul.  The  long- 
cherished  project  of  appealing  to  England  and  France  to  make  an 
alliance  to  secure  liberty  of  religion  was  revived.  The  impulsive 
converts  now  forwarded  the  scheme,  under  the  plea  of  patriotic 
defense  against  the  Russians,  with  all  the  innocent  maladdress 
which  characterizes  men  who  are  adults  in  age  but  children  in 
politics.  In  their  exhilaration  they  already  dreamed  of  building  a 
cathedral  in  Seoul  of  imposing  proportions,  and  finished  in  a style 
worthy  alike  of  their  religion  and  their  country.  Three  Christian 
nobles,  headed  by  Thomas  Kim,  composed  a letter  embodying 
their  ideas  of  an  anti-Russian  Franco  English  alliance,  and  had  it 
presented  to  the  regent,  who  blandly  sent  Thomas  Kim  to  invite 
the  bishops,  then  absent  to  a conference  in  the  capital.  On  his 
return  to  Seoul,  Kim  was  coldly  received,  and  no  further  notice 
was  taken  of  him.  The  anti-Christian  party,  now  in  full  power  at 
court,  clamored  for  the  enforcement  of  the  old  edict  against  the  for- 
eign religion,  while  a letter  from  one  of  the  Corean  embassy  in 
Peking,  arriving  late  in  January,  added  fuel  to  the  rising  flame.  It 
stated  that  the  Chinese  were  putting  to  death  all  the  Christians 
found  in  the  empire.  That  lie,  “as  light  as  a feather  ” in  its  telling, 
was  “ as  heavy  as  a mountain  ” in  Corea.  Such  an  illustrious  example 
must  be  followed.  Vainly  the  regent  warned  the  court  of  the  danger 
from  Europe.  The  Russian  ship,  too,  had  disappeared,  and  the 
French  seemed  afraid  to  take  vengeance  for  the  massacre  of  1839. 
The  cry  of  “ Death  to  all  the  Christians,  death  to  the  western 
barbarians  ” now  began  to  be  heard.  Forced  by  the  party  in  power, 
the  regent  signed  the  death-warrants  of  the  bishops  and  priests, 
promulgated  anew  the  old  laws  of  the  realm  against  the  Christians, 
and  proceeded  “ to  make  very  free  with  the  heads  of  his  subjects.” 
The  minions  of  the  magistrates  sallied  forth  like  bloodhounds  un- 
leashed. Berneux  was  seized  on  February  23d,  and  brought  to 
trial  successively  before  three  tribunals,  the  last  being  the  highest 
of  the  realm. 

In  his  interview  with  the  regent,  who  had  formed  a high  idea 
of  the  Frenchman,  Berneux  failed  to  address  his  Highness  in  the 
punctilious  form  of  words  demanded  by  court  etiquette.  Forth- 
with the  official  made  up  his  mind  that  the  Frenchman  was  a man 


THE  WALLS  OF  ISOLATION  SAPPED. 


375 


of  slight  attainments,  and  of  no  personal  importance — so  sensitive 
is  the  Corean  mind  in  the  matter  of  etiquette.  From  the  highest 
class  prison,  the  bishop,  after  undergoing  horrible  tortures  with 
club,  paddle,  and  pointed  sticks  thrust  into  his  flesh,  was  cast 
into  a common  dungeon,  where,  in  a few  days,  he  was  joined  by 
three  of  his  fellow  missionaries  with  several  converts,  faithful  to 
their  teachers  even  in  the  hour  of  death. 

All  suffered  the  fierce  and  savage  beatings,  and  on  March  8 th 
were  led  out  to  death.  An  immense  crowd  of  jeering,  laughing, 
curious  people  followed  the  prisoners,  who  were  tied  by  their  hair 
to  the  chair  so  as  to  force  them  to  hold  up  their  faces,  that  the 
crowd  might  see  them.  Four  hundred  soldiers  marched  out  with 
the  doomed  men  to  the  sandy  plain  near  the  river.  The  lengthened 
programme  of  brutal  torture  and  insult  was  duly  carried  out,  after 
which  the  four  heads  were  presented  for  inspection. 

One  day  afterward,  two  other  French  missionaries  and  their 
twelve  students  for  the  priesthood  were  led  captives  into  Seoul, 
marked  with  the  red  cord  and  yellow  caps  betokening  prisoners  soon 
to  die.  With  like  tortures,  and  the  same  shameful  details  of  execu- 
tion, they  suffered  death  on  March  11th.  On  this  day,  also,  Daveluy 
and  two  other  priests  were  seized,  and  on  March  30th,  Good  Friday, 
decapitated,  together  with  two  faithful  natives.  In  the  case  of  Dave- 
luy, the  barbarity  of  the  proceeding  was  increased  by  the  sordid  ex- 
ecutioner, who,  after  delivering  one  blow,  and  while  the  blood  was 
spouting  out  from  the  wound,  left  the  victim  to  bargain  with  the 
official  for  the  sum  due  him  for  his  work  of  blood. 

In  a little  over  a month  all  missionary  operations  had  come  to  a 
standstill.  Scores  of  natives  had  been  put  to  death  ; hundreds 
more  were  in  prison.  Ridel,  while  hiding  between  two  walls,  wrote 
to  Peking,  describing  the  state  of  affairs.  Feron  and  Ridel  met  on 
May  8th,  travelling  all  night,  and  on  June  15th  they  found  that 
Calais  was  still  alive.  Hearing  that  a foreign  steam-vessel  was 
cruising  off  the  Nai-po,  Ridel  sent  a letter  begging  for  help.  This 
ship  was  the  Rona,  Captain  Morrison,  belonging  to  a British  firm  in 
China,  on  its  way  back  from  Niu-chwang,  under  the  direction  of 
Mr.  Ernest  Oppert.  The  native  Christians  were  unable  to  get  on 
board  the  Rona  ; but  when  the  same  Oppert  visited  Haimi  in  the 
Nai-po,  some  months  later,  in  the  steamer  Emperor,  this  letter 
was  put  in  his  hands.  Meanwhile  Ridel  had  reached  the  sea-coast, 
and  in  spite  of  the  vigilant  patrols,  put  off  in  a boat  constructed 
without  an  ounce  of  iron,  and  manned  by  a crew  of  eleven  Christian 


376 


COREA. 


fishermen.  He  reached  Chifu  July  7th.  Going  at  once  to  Tien-tsin, 
he  informed  the  French  Admiral  Roze  of  the  recent  events  in  Corea, 
and  then  returning  to  Chifu,  waited  till  mid-August.  Feron  and 
Calais,  hearing  of  the  presence  of  French  ships  in  the  Han  River, 
reached  the  coast,  after  great  straits,  to  find  them  gone.  They  put 
to  sea,  however,  and  got  upon  a Chinese  smuggler,  by  which  they 
reached  Chifu,  October  26th — while  the  French  expedition  was  in 
Corea.  Not  one  foreign  priest  now  remained  in  the  peninsula,  and 
no  Christian  dared  openly  confess  his  faith,  while  thousands  were 
banished,  imprisoned,  or  put  to  death. 

Thus  after  twenty  years  of  nearly  uninterrupted  labors,  the 
church  was  again  stripped  of  her  pastors,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
eighty-two  years  of  Corean  Christianity,  the  curtain  fell  in  blood. 
Of  four  bishops  and  nineteen  priests,  all  except  four  were  from 
France,  and  of  these  only  three  remained  alive.  Fourteen  were 
martyrs,  and  four  fell  victims  to  the  toils  and  dangers  of  their  no- 
ble calling. 


In  the  foregoing  story  of  papal  Christianity  in  Cho-sen,  which 
we  have  drawn  from  Dallet — a Roman  Catholic  writer — we  have 
the  spectacle  of  a brave  band  of  men,  mostly  secular  priests  edu- 
cated in  French  seminaries  of  learning,  doing  what  they  believed 
it  was  right  to  do.  Setting  the  laws  of  this  pagan  country  at 
defiance,  they,  by  means  of  dissimulation  and  falsehood,  entered 
the  country  in  disguise  as  nobles  in  mourning.  Fully  believing  in 
the  dogma  of  salvation  by  works,  they  were  sublimely  diligent  in 
carrying  on  their  labors  of  conversion,  ever  in  readiness  for  that 
crown  of  martyrdom  which  each  one  coveted,  and  which  so 
many  obtained  ; but  the  nobleness  of  their  calling  was  disfigured 
by  the  foul  and  abominable  teaching  that  evil  should  be  done  in 
order  that  good  might  come — a tenet  that  insults  at  once  the  New 
Testament  and  the  best  casuistry  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
According  to  the  code  of  any  nation,  their  converts  were  traitors 
in  inviting  invasion  ; but  if  worthy  to  be  set  down  as  Arnolds  and 
Iscariots,  then  their  teachers  have  the  greater  blame  in  leading 
them  astray.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  future  Christian  mission- 
aries in  Corea,  whether  of  the  Greek,  Roman,  or  Reformed  branch, 
will  teach  Christianity  with  more  of  the  moral  purity  inculcated 
by  its  Founder. 


CHAPTER  XLHI. 


THE  FRENCH  EXPEDITION. 

The  preliminaries  of  the  French  expedition  to  Corea  in  1866 
may  be  gathered  from  the  letters  which  passed  between  the  French 
charge  d’affairs  at  Peking  and  Prince  Ivung,  the  Chinese  premier, 
as  published  in  the  United  States  Diplomatic  Correspondence, 
1867-68. 1 The  pyrotechnic  bombast  of  the  Frenchman  may  be 
best  understood  by  remembering  that  he  lived  in  the  palmy  days 
of  Louis  Napoleon  and  the  third  empire.  His  violent  language 
and  behavior  may  be  contrasted  with  the  calm  demeanor  and  firm 
temper  of  the  astute  Chinaman,  the  greatest  of  the  diplomats  of 
the  Middle  Kingdom. 

“Unfortunately  for  the  interests  of  his  country,  M.  H.  Bellonet 
had  carried  into  diplomacy  the  rude  customs  and  unmeasured 
language  of  the  African  Zouaves,  in  whose  ranks  he  had  served  at 
one  period  of  his  career.  ” 


1 July  13,  1866. 

M.  de  Bellonet  to  Prince  Kung. 

Sir  : I grieve  to  bring  officially  to  the  knowledge  of  your  Imperial  Highness 
a horrible  outrage  committed  in  the  small  kingdom  of  Corea,  which  formerly 
assumed  the  bonds  of  vassalage  to  the  Chinese  empire,  but  which  this  act  of 
savage  barbarity  has  forever  separated  from  it. 

In  the  course  of  the  month  of  March  last,  the  two  French  bishops  who 
were  evangelizing  Corea,  and  with  them  nine  missionaries  and  seven  Corean 
priests,  and  a great  multitude  of  Christians  of  both  sexes  and  of  every  age, 
were  massacred  by  order  of  the  sovereign  of  that  country. 

The  government  of  His  Majesty  cannot  permit  so  bloody  an  outrage  to  be 
unpunished.  The  same  day  on  which  the  king  of  Corea  laid  his  hands  upon 
my  unhappy  countrymen  was  the  last  of  his  reign  ; he  himself  proclaimed  its 
end,  which  I,  in  turn,  solemnly  declare  to-day.  In  a few  days  our  military 
forces  are  to  march  to  the  conquest  of  Corea,  and  the  Emperor,  my  august 
Sovereign,  alone  has  now  the  right  and  the  power  to  dispose,  according  to 
his  good  pleasure,  of  the  country  and  the  vacant  throne. 

The  Chinese  government  has  declared  to  me  many  times  that  it  has  no 
authority  over  Corea,  and  it  refused  on  this  pretext  to  apply  the  treaties  of 


378 


COREA. 


The  best  commentary  upon  this  boast  of  an  irate  underling, 
dressed  in  the  brief  authority  of  his  superior,  -will  be  found  in  tha 
events  of  the  expedition,  notably  in  the  reduction  to  ashes  of  the 
city  of  Kang-wa,  which  rendered  10,000  people  homeless,  and 
in  the  repulse  of  the  reckless  invaders  even  before  Bellonet  at 
Peking  was  settling  the  fate  of  the  king. 

W ith  Bishop  Ridel  as  interpreter,  and  three  of  his  converts  as 
pilots,  three  vessels  were  sent  to  explore  the  Han  River.  Equipped 
with  charts  made  by  Captain  James  of  the  Emperor,  who  had  ex- 
amined the  western  entrance  one  month  before,  the  despatch-boat 
Deroulede  leaving  her  consorts  in  Prince  Jerome  Gulf,  steamed  up 
the  river  on  September  21st,  as  far  as  the  narrows  between  Kang- 
wa  and  the  mainland.  The  French  officers  were  charmed  with  the 
beauty  of  the  autumnal  scenery.  On  the  cultivated  plain,  check- 
ered into  a thousand  squares  of  tiny  rice-fields,  all  well  irrigated, 


Tien-tsin  to  that  country,  and  give  to  our  missionaries  the  passports  which  we 
have  asked  from  it.  We  have  taken  note  of  these  declarations,  and  we  de- 
clare now  that  we  do  not  recognize  any  authority  whatever  of  the  Chinese 
government  over  the  kingdom  of  Corea. 

I have,  etc., 


His  Imperial  Highness,  Prince  Kung. 


H.  de  Bellonet. 


Spurning  with  irritating,  not  to  say  insulting,  language,  the  suggestion  of 
Prince  Kung  that  Bellonet  might  do  well  to  inquire  into  the  causes  and  merits 
of  the  execution  of  the  missionaries,  the  representative  of  France,  November 
11th,  again  addressed  the  Chinese  statesman.  In  this  missive  occurs  the  follow- 
ing: “As  for  the  fate  of  the  former  king  of  Corea,  it  is  now  subject  to  the 
decision  of  the  Emperor,  my  august  Sovereign.  ” 

Monsieur  Bellonet’s  method  is  one  specimen  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
envoys  of  European  nations  are  accustomed  to  bully  the  governments 
of  Asiatic  countries.  In  a long  communication  to  Prince  Kung,  dated 
November  11,  18C6,  Mr.  Bellonet  charges  upon  the  Chinese  government: 
1st.  Complicity  with  Corea.  2d.  That  the  Corean  embassy,  during  the 
previous  winter,  had  stated  the  project  of  the  massacre,  and  had  received  the 
tacit  official  authorization  of  the  Chinese  government.  3d.  The  direct  approval 
of  several  high  members  of  it.  4th.  That  the  recruiting  and  mobilization 
of  Mauchiu  troops,  beyond  the  Great  Wall,  was  for  the  purpose  of  assisting 
Corea  against  the  French.  He  writes,  in  addition  to  the  above,  an  amazing 
amount  of  nonsense,  which  shows  of  what  magnifying  powers  the  human 
eye  is  capable  when  enlarged  by  suspicion. 

Among  other  tidbits  of  rodomontade,  is  this  one — which  is  a truthful 
picture  of  the  France  of  Napoleon  III.  — “ War  for  us  is  a pleasure  which  the 
French  passionately  seek  ; ” and  this — “ The  people  of  Corea  address  us  as  de* 
liverers,  ...  we  shall  inaugurate  the  reign  of  order,  justice,  and  pros- 
perity.” 


THE  FRENCH  EXPEDITION. 


379 


the  golden-tinted  grain,  now  full  ripe,  awaited  the  sickle  and  the 
sheaf-binder.  Numerous  villages  dotted  the  landscape,  and  to  the 
northwest  rose  the  green  hills  on  which  sat,  like  a queen,  the  city 
of  Kang-wa.  A number  of  forts,  as  yet  unmounted  with  cannon, 
were  already  built.  Others,  in  process  of  construction,  were  rising 
on  well-chosen  sites  commanding  the  river.  No  garrison  or  a 
single  soldier  was  as  yet  seen.  The  simple  villagers,  at  first  fright- 


ened at  the  sight  of  a mighty  black  ship,  moving  up  the  river 
against  a strong  current  without  sails  or  oars,  collected  in  crowds 
along  the  banks  to  see  this  fire-pulsing  monster  from  the  western 
ocean. 

On  the  23d  the  Deroulede  and  Tardif,  leaving  the  Primauguet 
at  Boisce  (Woody)  Island,  moved  up  the  Han  River  to  the  capital, 
the  Corean  pilots  at  the  bow,  and  Ridel  with  the  men  at  the  wheel. 


:;so 


COREA. 


One  or  two  forts  fired  on  the  vessels  as  they  steamed  along-,  and  in 
one  place  a fleet  of  junks  gathered  to  dispute  their  passage.  A 
well-aimed  shot  sunk  two  of  the  crazy  craft,  and  a bombshell 
dropped  among  the  artillerists  in  the  redoubt  silenced  it  at  once. 
The  rocks  were  safely  avoided,  and  on  the  evening  of  the  25th,  the 
two  ships  cast  anchor,  and  the  flag  of  France  floated  in  front  of  the 
Corean  capital.  The  hills  environing  the  city  and  every  point  of 
view  were  white  with  gazing  thousands,  who  for  the  first  time  saw 
a vessel  moving  under  steam. 

The  ships  remained  abreast  of  the  city  several  days,  the  officers 
taking  soundings  and  measurements,  computing  heights  and  mak- 
ing plans.  M.  Fidel  went  on  shore  in  hopes  of  finding  a Christian 
and  hearing  some  news,  but  none  dared  to  approach  him. 

While  the  French  remained  in  the  river,  not  a bag  of  rice  nor  a 
fagot  of  wood  entered  Seoul.  Eight  days  of  such  terror,  and  a 
famine  -would  have  raged  in  the  city.  Seven  thousand  houses 
were  deserted  by  their  occupants. 

Returning  to  Boisee  Island,  having  surveyed  the  river,  two  con- 
verts came  on  board.  They  informed  Ridel  of  the  burning  of  a 
“ European  ” ship  [the  General  Sherman]  at  Ping-an,  the  renewal 
of  the  persecution,  and  the  order  that  Christians  should  be  put  to 
death  without  waiting  for  instructions  from  Seoul.  Ridel  in  vain 
urged  Admiral  Roze  to  remain  with  his  fleet,  in  order  to  intimidate 
the  government.  Sailing  away,  the  ships  arrived  at  Chifu,  Octo- 
ber 3d. 

Tai-wen  kun,  now  thoroughly  alarmed,  began  to  stir  up  the  coun- 
try to  defense.  The  military  forces  in  every  province  were  called 
out.  Every  scrap  of  iron  was  collected,  and  the  forges  and  black- 
smith shops  were  busy  day  and  night  in  making  arms  of  every 
known  kind ; even  the  farmer’s  tools  were  altered  into  pikes  and 
sabres.  Loaded  junks  were  sunk  in  the  channel  of  the  Han  to  ob- 
struct it.  Through  the  Japanese  at  Fusan,  and  the  daimio  of 
Tsushima,  word  was  sent  to  the  Tycoon  of  Japan,  informing  him  of 
his  straits,  and  begging  for  assistance.  The  Yedo  government, 
being  at  that  time  in  great  straits  between  the  pressure  of  foreign- 
ers on  one  hand,  and  of  the  “ mikado-reverencers  ” on  the  other, 
could  not  then,  had  it  been  right  to  do  so,  afford  any  military  as- 
sistance against  the  French,  with  whom  a treaty  had  been  made. 
Instead  of  this,  two  commissioners  were  appointed  to  go  to  Seoul, 
and  recommend  that  Cho-sen  open  her  ports  to  foreign  com- 
merce, as  Japan  had  done,  and  thus  choose  peace  instead  of  war 


THE  FRENCH  EXPEDITION. 


381 


with  foreigners.  Before  the  envoys  could  leave  Japan,  the  Tycoon 
had  died,  and  the  next  year  Japan  was  in  the  throes  of  civil  war, 
the  sho-gunate  was  abolished,  and  Corea  was  for  the  time  utterly 
forgotten. 

The  object  of  the  French  expedition  and  the  blockade  of  the 
Salee  (Han)  Kiver  were  duly  announced  from  the  French  legation 
in  China  to  the  Chinese  and  foreign  representatives  in  Peking. 
Without  waiting  to  hear  from  his  government  at  home,  Bellonet 
despatched  the  fleet  and  made  war  on  his  own  responsibility.  The 
squadron  which  sailed  October  11th,  to  distribute  thrones  and  de- 
capitate prime  ministers,  consisted  of  the  frigate  Guerriere,  the 
corvettes  Laplace  and  Primauguet,  the  despatch-vessels  Deroulede 
and  Kien-chan,  and  the  gunboats  Tardif  and  Lebretlion,  with  600 
soldiers,  including  a detachment  of  400  marines  from  the  camp  at 
Yokohama. 

One  would  have  thought  600  men  rather  too  small  a force  to 
root  up  thrones  with,  seeing  that  the  days  of  Cortez  and  Pizarro 
were  past.  The  Coreans  were  not  like  the  Mexicans,  who  thought 
a horse  and  his  rider  were  one  animal.  They  had  smelt  powder 
and  fought  tigers. 

On  October  13th  the  admiral  cast  anchor  off  Boisee  Island. 
The  next  day  the  gunboats  steamed  up  the  river,  landing  the  ma- 
rines in  camp,  a little  over  half  a mile  from  the  city.  On  the  15th, 
before  any  attempt  was  made  to  communicate  with  the  government, 
a reconnoissance  was  made  in  force,  toward  Kang-hoa  (Kang-wa), 
during  which  a small  fort,  mounting  two  guns,  was  captured. 

Kang-wa  was,  to  a modern  eye,  probably  one  of  the  best  fortified 
cities  in  the  kingdom.  It  was  surrounded  by  a crenelated  wall, 
nearly  fifteen  feet  high  ! Behind  this  defense  the  native  soldiery 
stood  ready  with  flails,  arrows,  matchlocks,  and  jingals. 

The  royal  residence,  for  pleasure  in  summer,  and  refuge  in  war- 
time, was  beautifully  situated  on  a wooded  hill,  from  which  a glori- 
ous view  of  the  island,  sea,  and  mainland  was  visible.  The 
fertile  island  itself  lay  like  a green  emerald  upon  a greener  sea. 
Crops  of  rice,  barley,  tobacco,  sorghum,  maize,  various  root  foods, 
Chinese  cabbage,  chestnuts,  persimmons,  with  here  and  there  a great 
camellia  tree  just  entering  into  bloom,  greeted  the  view  of  the  in- 
vaders. Kang-wa  was  well  named  “ The  Flower  of  the  River.” 

At  eight  o’clock  on  the  morning  of  October  16th  an  attack  was 
made  in  force  on  the  main  gate.  At  the  distance  of  one  hundred 
yards,  the  infantry  charged  on  a run,  to  the  cry  of  “ Vive  l’Empe- 


382 


COREA. 


reur.”  The  hot  fire  of  the  jingals  checked  them  not  a moment. 
Reaching  the  wall,  they  set  up  the  scaling  ladders,  and  in  a few  mo- 
ments hundreds  of  Frenchmen  were  inside,  shooting  down  the  fly- 
ing white-coats,  or  engaging  in  a hand  to  hand  encounter,  though 
only  a few  natives  were  killed.  The  gate  was  soon  crushed 
in  with  axes,  and  the  main  body  entered  easily.  Firing  was  soon 
over,  and  the  deserted  city  was  in  the  victors  hands.  About  eighty 
bronze  and  iron  cannon,  mostly  of  very  small  calibre,  over  six  thou- 
sand matchlocks,  and  the  official  archives  of  the  city  were  found  and 
made  trophies  of. 

Kang-wa  was  the  military  headquarters  for  western  Corea  and 
the  chief  place  of  gunpowder  manufacture.  Large  magazines  of 
food  supplies  had  been  collected  in  it.  Eighteen  boxes  of  silver, 
containing  ingots  to  the  value  of  nearly  thirty  eight  thousand  dol- 
lars, and  a great  many  books  and  manuscripts  were  found,  besides 
spoil  of  many  kinds  from  the  shops  and  houses.  Lnmense  stores 
of  bows  and  arrows,  iron  sabres  without  scabbards,  helmets,  and 


Breech-loading  Cannon  of  Corean  Manufacture. 


breastplates,  beautifully  wrought,  but  very  heavy  and  clumsy,  were 
found. 

The  cannon  had  no  carriages,  but  were  fastened  to  logs  or  fixed 
platforms.  They  were  breech-loaders,  in  that  the  powder,  fixed  in 
an  iron  cartridge,  was  introduced  at  the  breech,  while  the  ball  seemed 
to  be  put  in  simultaneously  at  the  muzzle.  These  double-ended 
cannon  reminded  one  of  a tortoise.  A curious  or  rather  comical 
thing  about  these  cannon  was  that  many  of  them  had  several  touch- 
holes  in  a row,  the  cannonier  firing  them  by  applying  his  match 
rapidly  along  the  line  of  vents — an  “ accelerating  gun,”  of  a rude 
kind.  The  Corean  gunpowder  is  said  to  burn  so  slowly  that  a 
charge  has  to  be  lighted  at  both  ends — a type  of  the  national  pol- 
icy. 

As  the  Coreans  were  fortifying  Tong-chin  with  unusual  care, 
the  admiral  sent  out,  October  26th,  a reconnoitering  party  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty  men,  who  were  landed  on  the  mainland,  op- 
posite Kang-wa  Island,  whence  the  high  road  runs  direct  to  the 


THE  FRENCH  EXPEDITION. 


383 


capital.  Here  was  a village,  with  fortifications  clustered  around  a 
great  gate,  having  a pointed  stone  arch  surmounted  by  the  figure  of 
a tortoise  and  a pagoda  To  force  this  gate  was  to  win  the  way  to 
the  capital. 

As  the  marines  were  disembarking,  the  Coreans  poured  in  a 
heavy  fire,  which  killed  two  and  wounded  twenty-five  Frenchmen. 
Nevertheless  the  place  was  stormed  and  seized,  but  as  the  Corean 
forces  were  gathering  in  the  vicinity,  the  marines  returned  to  the 
ships  to  await  reinforcements. 

Toward  evening  a party  of  Coreans  defiled  at  the  foot  of  the  plain 
in  gallant  array,  evidently  elated  with  supposed  victory.  Suddenly, 
as  they  came  within  range,  the  French  ships  opened  on  them  with 
shell,  which  exploded  among  them. 

Terrified  at  such  unknown  war  missiles,  they  broke  and  fled  to 
the  hill-tops,  where,  to  their  surprise,  they  were  again  enveloped  in  a 
shower  of  iron.  Finally  they  had  to  take  shelter  in  the  distant 
ravines  and  the  far  plains,  which  at  night  were  illumined  by  their 
bivouac  fifes. 

Weak  men  and  nations,  in  fighting  against  stronger  enemies, 
must,  like  the  weaker  ones  in  the  brute  creation,  resort  to  cunning. 
They  try  to  weary  out  what  they  cannot  overcome.  The  Coreans, 
even  before  rifled  cannon  and  steamers,  began  to  play  the  same  old 
tricks  practised  in  the  war  with  the  Japanese  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. They  made  hundreds  of  literal  “ men  of  straw,”  and  stuck 
them  within  range  of  the  enemy’s  artillery,  that  the  Frenchmen 
might  vainly  expend  their  powder  and  iron.  The  keen-eyed 
Frenchmen,  aided  by  their  glasses,  detected  the  cheat,  and  wasted 
no  shot  on  the  mannikins. 

Meanwhile  the  invaded  nation  was  roused  to  a white  heat  of 
wrath.  The  furnace  of  persecution  and  the  forges  of  the  armorers 
were  alike  heated  to  their  utmost.  Earnest  hands  plied  with  rival- 
ling diligence  the  torture  and  the  sledge.  In  the  capital  it  was 
written  on  the  gate-posts  of  the  palace  that  whoever  should  propose 
peace  with  the  French  should  be  treated  as  a traitor  and  im- 
mediately executed. 

On  October  19th,  Ni,  the  Corean  general  commanding,  had  sent 
the  French  admiral  a long  letter  stuffed  with  quotations  from  the 
Chinese  classics,  the  gist  of  which  was  that  whoever  from  outside 
broke  through  the  frontiers  of  another  kingdom  was  worthy  of 
death— a sentiment  well  worthy  of  a state  of  savagery. 

The  French  admiral,  with  equal  national  bombast,  but  in  direct 


384 


COREA. 


and  clearest  phrase,  demanded  the  surrender  of  the  three  high 
ministers  of  the  court,  else  he  would  hold  the  Corean  government 
responsible  for  the  miseries  of  the  war. 

The  Coreans  in  camp  were  ceaselessly  busy  in  drilling  raw 
troops  and  improving  their  marksmanship.  Soldiers  arrived  from 
all  quarters,  and  among  them  was  a regiment  of  eight  hundred 
tiger-hunters  from  the  north,  every  man  of  whom  was  a dead  shot 
either  with  bow  or  matchlock.  These  men,  who  had  faced  the  tiger 
and  many  of  whom  had  felt  his  claws,  were  not  likely  to  fear  even 
French  “devils.”  They  garrisoned  a fortified  monastery  on  the 
island  which  was  situated  in  a valley  in  the  centre  of  a circle  of 
hills  which  were  crowned  by  a wall  of  uncemented  masonry.  It 
could  be  approached  only  by  one  small  foot-path  in  a deep  ravine. 
The  entrance  was  a gateway  of  heavy  hewn  stone,  arched  in  a full 
semicircle,  the  gate  being  in  one  piece.  The  walls  were  mounted 
with  home-made  artillery. 

On  the  same  day  on  which  this  information  reached  the  admiral, 
the  natives  attacked  a French  survey  boat,  whereupon  he  at  once 
resolved  to  capture  the  monastery.  For  this  purpose  he  detached 
160  men,  without  artillery,  who  left  at  sis  o’clock  in  the  morning  of 
October  27th,  with  their  luncheon  packed  on  horses.  The  invaders, 
with  their  heads  turned  by  too  many  easy  victories,  went  in  something 
like  picnic  order,  frequently  stopping  to  rest  and  enjoy  the  autumnal 
scenery.  On  several  occasions  they  saw  squads  of  men  marching 
over  the  hills  toward  the  same  destination,  but  this  did  not  hurry 
the  Frenchmen,  though  a native  informed  them  that  the  monastery, 
ordinarily  inhabited  only  by  a dozen  priests,  was  now  garrisoned 
and  full  of  soldiers. 

At  11.30  they  arrived  near  the  fortress,  when  some  one  proposed 
lunch.  Others  jauntily  declared  it  would  be  very  easy  to  capture 
“ the  pagoda,”  and  then  dine  in  the  hall  of  Buddha  himself ; this 
advice  was  not,  however,  followed.  Having  arranged  three  parties, 
they  advanced  to  within  three  hundred  yards  of  the  gate.  All 
within  was  as  silent  as  death.  Suddenly  a sheet  of  flame  burst 
from  the  whole  length  of  the  wall,  though  not  a black  head  nor  a 
white  coat  was  visible.  In  a minute  the  French  columns  were 
shattered  and  broken,  and  not  a man  was  on  his  feet.  The  soldiers, 
retreating  in  a hail  of  lead,  found  refuge  behind  rocks,  sheaves  of 
rice,  piles  of  straw,  and  in  the  huts  near  by.  There  the  officers 
rallied  their  men  lest  the  garrison  should  make  a sally.  The 
wounded  were  then  borne  to  the  rear.  They  numbered  thirty- 


THE  FRENCH  EXPEDITION. 


385 


two.  Only  eighty  fighting  men  were  left,  and  these  soon  became 
conscious  of  being  weak  and  very  hungry,  for  they  had  been  cruelly 
tantalized  by  seeing  the  lunch-horse  kick  up  his  heels  at  the  first 
fire,  and  trot  over  to  the  Coreans.  They  learned  that  one  of  the 
slips  ’twixt  the  cup  and  the  lip  might  be  caused  by  a horse  in  Cho- 
sen. Perhaps  some  native  poet  improvised  a poem  contrasting 
the  patriotic  nag  with  the  steed  of  Kanko,  which  led  a hungry 
army  home. 

It  being  madness  or  annihilation  for  eighty  Frenchmen  to  at- 
tempt to  storm  a stone  fortress,  garrisoned  by  five  or  ten  times 
their  number  of  enemies,  and  guarded  with  artillery,  retreat  was 
resolved  on.  The  wounded  were  hastily  cared  for  and  the  mourn- 
ful march  began.  The  stronger  men  carried  their  severely  injured 
comrades  on  their  shoulders  with  brotherly  kindness.  The  un- 
wounded who  were  free  formed  the  rear-guard.  Three  times  the 
little  band  had  to  face  about  and  fire  with  effect  at  the  Coreans, 
who  thrice  charged  their  foes  with  heavy  loss  to  themselves.  They 
then  mounted  the  hills,  and  with  savage  yells  celebrated  their  vic- 
tory over  the  western  barbarians.  It  was  not  till  night,  hungry 
and  tired,  that  reinforcements  were  met  a half  league  from  camp. 
They  had  been  sent  out  by  the  admiral,  to  whom  had  come  presenti- 
ment of  failure. 

There  was  gloom  in  the  camp  that  night  and  at  headquarters. 
The  near  sky  and  the  horizon,  notched  by  the  hills,  seemed  to  glare 
with  unusual  luridness,  betokening  the  joy  and  the  deadly  purpose 
of  the  invaded  people. 

The  next  morning,  to  the  surprise  of  all,  and  the  anger  of 
many,  orders  were  given  to  embark.  The  work  on  the  fortifica- 
tions begun  around  the  camp  was  left  off.  The  troops  in  Kang-wa 
set  fire  to  the  city,  which,  in  a few  hours,  was  a level  heap  of  ashes. 
The  departure  of  the  invaders  was  so  precipitate  that  the  patriots 
to  this  day  gloat  over  it  as  a disgraceful  retreat. 

A huge  bronze  bell,  from  one  of  the  temples  in  Kang-wa,  which 
had  been  transported  half  way  to  the  camp,  was  abandoned.  The 
Coreans  recaptured  this,  regarding  it  as  a special  trophy  of  victory. 
The  French  embarked  at  night,  and  at  six  o’clock  next  morning 
dropped  down  to  the  anchorage  at  Boisee  Island.  On  the  way, 
every  fort  on  the  island  seemed  to  be  manned  and  popping  away  at 
the  ships,  but  hurting  only  the  paint  and  rigging.  To  their  great 
disgust,  the  men  repulsed  two  days  before,  discovered  the  walls  of 
the  monastery  from  deck,  and  that  the  distance  was  only  a mile  and 
25 


386 


COREA. 


a half  from  the  river  side.  There  was  considerable  silent  swearing 
among  the  officers,  who  believed  it  could  be  easily  stormed  and 
taken  even  then.  Orders  must  be  obeyed,  however,  and  in  rage 
and  shame  they  silently  gazed  on  the  grim  walls.  The  return  of 
the  expedition  was  a great  surprise  to  the  fleet  at  Boisee  Island. 
On  his  return  to  China,  the  admiral  found,  to  his  mortification,  that 
his  government  did  not  approve  of  the  headlong  venture  of  Bel- 
lonet. 1 

In  the  palace  at  Seoul,  the  resolve  was  made  to  exterminate  Chris- 
tianity, root  and  branch.  Women  and  even  children  were  ordered 
to  the  death.  Several  Christian  nobles  were  executed.  One  Christian, 
who  was  betrayed  in  the  capital  by  his  pagan  brother,  and  another 
unknown  fellow-believer  were  taken  to  the  river  side  in  front  of 
the  city,  near  the  place  where  the  two  French  vessels  had  anchored. 
At  this  historic  spot,  by  an  innovation  unknown  in  the  customs  of 
Cho-sen,  they  were  decapitated,  and  their  headless  trunks  held 
neck  downward  to  spout  out  the  hot  life-blood,  that  it  might  wash 
away  the  stain  of  foreign  pollution.  “It  is  for  the  sake  of  these 
Christians,”  said  the  official  proclamation,  “ that  the  barbarians 
have  come  just  here.  It  is  on  account  of  these  only  that  the  waters 
of  our  river  have  been  defiled  by  western  ships.  It  behooves  that 
their  blood  should  wash  out  the  stain.”  Upon  the  mind  of  the 
regent  and  court  at  Seoul,  the  effect  was  to  swell  their  pride  to  the 
folly  of  extravagant  conceit.  Feeling  themselves  able  almost  to 
defy  the  world,  they  began  soon  after  to  hurl  their  defiance  at 
Japan.  The  dwarf  of  yesterday  had  become  a giant  in  a day. 


1 The  results  of  this  expedition  were  disastrous  all  over  the  East.  Happen- 
ing at  a time  when  relations  between  foreigners  and  Chinese  were  strained,  the 
unexpected  return  of  the  fleet  filled  the  minds  of  Europeans  in  China  with 
alarm.  It  was  the  unanimous  verdict  of  press  and  people  that  the  return  of 
the  French  in  sufficient  force  to  Corea  in  the  spring  was  a measure  of  absolute 
safety  to  foreigners  in  the  far  East.  If  not,  since  both  British  and  American 
citizens  were  among  the  crew  of  the  General  Sherman,  murdered  at  Ping-an, 
the  fleets  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  should  proceed  to  Seoul.  This, 
however,  was  not  done ; the  English  let  well  enough  alone,  the  French  soon 
had  their  hands  full  in  attending  to  the  Germans  at  home,  and  the  Americans 
went  later  only  to  follow  Admiral  Roze’s  example.  Meanwhile  the  smothered 
embers  of  hostility  to  foreign  influence  steadily  gathered  vigor,  as  the  report 
spread  like  a gale  through  China  that  the  hated  Frenchmen  had  been  driven 
away  by  the  Coreans.  The  fires  at  length  broke  out  in  the  Tien-tsin  massacre, 
June  21,  1870.  “It  is  believed  by  many  thoughtful  observers  in  China  that 
this  frightful  event  gained  its  first  serious  impetus  from  the  unfortunate  issu« 
of  Admiral  Roze’s  campaign  in  Corea.” 


THE  FRENCH  EXPEDITION. 


387 


In  spite  of  foreign  invaders  and  war’s  alarms,  one  peaceful  event 
during  this  same  year,  and  shortly  after  the  French  fleet  had  gone 
away,  sent  a ripple  of  pleasure  over  the  surface  of  Corean  society. 
The  young  king,  now  but  fourteen  years  old,  who  had  been  duly 
betrothed  to  Min,1  a daughter  of  one  of  the  noble  families,  was 
duly  married.  Popular  report  credits  the  young  queen  with  abili- 
ties not  inferior  to  those  of  her  royal  husband. 

According  to  custom,  the  Chinese  emperor  sent  an  ambassador, 
one  Koei-ling,  a mandarin  of  high  rank,  to  bear  the  imperial  con- 
gratulations and  investiture  of  the  queen.  This  merry  Chinaman, 
cultivated,  lively,  poetic  in  mood,  and  susceptible  to  nature’s 
beauties,  wrote  an  account  of  his  journey  between  the  two  capitals. 
His  charming  impressions  of  travel  give  us  glimpses  of  peaceful 
life  in  the  land  of  Morning  Calm,  and  afford  a delightful  contrast 
to  the  grim  visage  of  war,  with  which  events  in  Corea  during  the 
last  decade  have  unhappily  made  us  too  familiar. 


1 The  Min  or  Ming  family  is  largely  Chinese  in  hlood  and  origin,  and,  be- 
sides being  pre-eminent  among  all  the  Corean  nobility  in  social,  political,  and 
intellectual  power,  has  been  most  strenuous  in  adherence  to  Chinese  ideas  and 
traditions,  with  the  purpose  of  keeping  Corea  unswerving  in  her  vassalage 
and  loyalty  to  China.  Their  retainers  constitute  a large  portion  of  the  popula- 
tion of  Seoul.  Besides  the  queen,  the  king  on  his  mother’s  side,  the  wife  of 
the  heir  apparent,  and  several  of  the  highest  officers  of  the  government  belong 
to  the  house  of  Min.  For  centuries  this  family  has  practically  governed  the 
kingdom.  Their  social  and  personal  influence  in  Peking  has  always  been  very 
great,  while  at  home  their  relations  to  the  treasury  and  the  army  have  been 
very  close.  The  plot  of  1882  was  in  effect  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  destroy 
their  power.  When  China  commanded,  they  approved  of  the  treaty  with  the 
United  States. 


CHAPTER  XLIY. 


AMERICAN  RELATIONS  WITH  COREA. 

America  became  a commercial  rival  to  Cho-sen  as  early  as  1757, 
when  the  products  of  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  lay  side  by 
side  with  Corean  imports  in  the  markets  of  Peking  and  Canton.  Gin- 
seng, the  most  precious  drug  in  the  Chinese  pharmacopoeia,  had  been 
for  ages  brought  from  Manchuria  and  the  neighboring  peninsula, 
where,  on  the  mountains,  the  oldest  and  richest  roots  are  found. 

The  Dutch  traders,  at  once  noticing  the  insatiable  demand  for 
the  famed  remedy,  sought  all  over  the  world  for  a supply.  The 
sweetish  and  mucilaginous  root,  though  considered  worthless  by 
Europeans,  was  then  occasionally  bringing  its  weight  in  gold,  and 
usually  seven  times  its  weight  in  silver,  at  Peking,  and  the  merchants 
in  the  annual  embassy  from  Seoul  were  reaping  a rich  harvest. 
Besides  selling  the  younger  and  less  valuable  crop  in  its  natural 
condition,  they  had  factories  in  which  the  two-legged  roots — which 
to  the  Asiatic  imagination  suggested  the  figure  of  the  human  body 
they  were  meant  to  refresh— were  so  manipulated  as  to  take  on 
the  appearance  of  age,  thus  enhancing  their  price  in  the  market. 

Suddenly  the  Corean  market  was  broken.  Stimulated  by  the 
Dutch  merchants  at  Albany,  the  Indians  of  Massachusetts  had 
found  the  fleshy  root  growing  abundantly  on  the  hills  around 
Stockbridge  in  Massachusetts.  Taking  it  to  Albany,  they  exchanged 
it  for  hardware,  trinkets,  and  rum.  While  the  Dutch  domines 
were  scandalized  at  the  drunken  revels  of  the  “ Yankee  ” Indians, 
who  equalled  the  Mohawks  in  their  inebriation,  good  Jonathan 
Edwards  at  Stockbridge  was  grieving  over  the  waywardness  of  his 
dusky  flock,  because  they  had  gone  wild  over  ginseng-hunting. 

The  Hollanders,  shipping  the  bundled  roots  on  their  galliots 
down  the  Hudson,  and  thence  to  Amsterdam  and  London,  sold  them 
to  the  British  East  India  Company  at  a profit  of  five  hundred  per 
cent.  Landed  at  Canton,  and  thence  carried  to  Peking,  American 
ginseng  broke  the  market,  forced  the  price  to  a shockingly  low 
figure,  and  dealt  a heavy  blow  to  the  Corean  monopoly. 


AMERICAN  RELATIONS  WITH  COREA. 


389 


Henceforth  a steady  stream  of  ginseng — now  found  in  limitless 
quantities  in  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys — poured  into  China. 
Though  far  inferior  to  the  best  article,  it  ( Aralia  quinquefolia)  is 
sufficiently  like  it  in  taste  and  real  or  imaginary  qualities  to  rival 
the  root  of  Cho-sen,  which  is  not  of  the  very  highest  grade. 

Less  than  a generation  had  passed  from  the  time  that  the  west- 
ern end  of  Massachusetts  had  auy  influence  on  Corea  or  China,  be- 
fore there  was  brought  from  the  far  East  an  herb  that  influenced  the 
colony  at  her  other  end,  far  otherwise  than  commercially.  Mas- 
sachusetts had  sent  ginseng  to  Canton,  China  now  sent  tea  to 
Massachusetts.  The  herb  from  Amoy  wras  pitched  into  the  sea  by 
men  dressed  and  painted  like  the  Indians,  and  the  Revolution  fol- 
lowed. 

The  war  for  independence  over,  Captain  John  Greene,  in  the 
ship  Empress  of  China,  sailed  from  New  York,  February  22,  1784. 
Major  Samuel  Shaw,  the  supercargo,  without  government  aid  or 
recognition,  established  American  trade  with  China,  living  at  Can- 
ton during  part  of  the  year  1786  and  the  whole  of  1787  and  1788. 
Having  been  appointed  consul  by  President  Washington  in  1789, 
while  on  a visit  home,  Major  Shaw  returned  to  China  in  an  en- 
tirely new  ship,  the  Massachusetts,  built,  navigated,  and  owned  by 
American  citizens.  At  Canton  he  held  the  office  of  consul  certainly 
until  the  year  1790,  and  presumably  until  his  death  in  1794.  This 
first  consul  of  the  United  States  in  China  received  his  commission 
from  Congress,  on  condition  that  he  should  “not  be  entitled  to 
receive  any  salary,  fees,  or  emoluments  whatever.” 

Animated  by  the  spirit  of  independence,  and  a laudable  ambi- 
tion, the  resolute  citizen  of  the  New  World  declared  that  “ the 
Americans  must  have  tea,  and  they  seek  the  most  lucrative  market 
for  their  precious  root  ginseng.”  1 

It  was  ginseng  and  tea — an  exchange  of  the  materials  for  drink, 
a barter  of  tonics — that  brought  the  Americans  and  Chinese,  and 
finally  the  Americans  and  Coreans  together. 


1 The  Honorable  Gideon  Nye,  of  China,  from  whose  article  in  “ The  Far 
East  ” these  facts  are  drawn  concerning  the  first  consul  of  the  United 
States  to  China,  has  effectually  disproved  the  oft-quoted  statement  of  Sir  John 
Davis  in  his  “History  of  China,”  that  “It  was  in  the  year  1302  that  the 
American  flag  was  first  hoisted  at  Canton.”  Dr.  William  Speer  in  his  excellent 
book— fair  to  the  Chinese  as  well  as  to  foreigners — has  told  the  story  of 
Jonathan  Edwards  and  his  troubles  over  ginseng  and  the  drink  which  his  In- 
dian pupils  bought  with  it. 


390 


COREA. 


Cotton  was  the  next  American  raw  material  exported  to  China* 
beginning  in  1791.  In  1842  the  loaded  ships  sailed  direct  from 
Alabama  to  Canton,  on  the  expansion  of  trade  after  the  Opium  War. 

The  idea  now  began  to  dawn  upon  some  minds  that  it  was  high 
time  that  Japan  and  Corea  should  be  opened  to  American  com 
merce. 

The  first  public  man  who  gave  this  idea  official  expression  was 
the  Honorable  Zadoc  Pratt,  then  member  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives from  the  Eleventh  (now  the  Fifteenth)  Congressional 
District  of  New  York.  As  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Naval 
Affairs,  he  introduced  in  Congress,  February  12,  1845,  a proposi- 
tion for  the  extension  of  American  commerce  by  the  despatch  of  a 
mission  to  Japan  and  Corea  as  follows : 

“ It  is  hereby  recommended  that  immediate  measures  be  taken 
for  effecting  commercial  arrangements  with  the  empire  of  Japan 
and  the  kingdom  of  Corea,”  etc.  (Congressional  Globe,  vol.  xiv.,  p. 
294). 

The  Mexican  war  was  then  already  looming  as  a near  possibility, 
and  under  its  shadow,  the  wisdom  of  sending  even  a part  of  our 
little  navy  was  doubted,  and  Mr.  Pratt’s  bill  failed  to  pass. 

None  of  the  American  commanders,  Glyn,  Biddle,  John  Rodgers, 
or  even  Perry,  seem  to  have  ventured  into  Corean  waters,  and 
Commodore  Perry  has  scarcely  mentioned  the  adjacent  kingdom  in 
the  narrative  of  the  treaty  expedition  which  he  wrote,  and  his 
pastor,  the  Rev.  Francis  L.  Hawks,  edited.  In  truth,  the  sealed 
country  was  at  that  time  almost  as  little  known  as  that  of  Corea  or 
Come,  which  Josephus  mentions,  or  that  province  of  India  which 
bears  the  same  name. 

The  commerce  which  sprang  up,  not  only  between  our  country 
and  China  and  Japan,  but  also  that  carried  on  in  American  vessels  be- 
tween Slianghae,  Chifu,  Tien-tsin,  and  Niu-chwang  in  North  China, 
and  the  Japanese  ports,  made  the  navigation  of  Corean  waters  a 
necessity.  Sooner  or  later  shipwrecks  must  occur,  and  the  ques- 
tion of  the  humane  treatment  of  American  citizens  cast  on  Corean 
shores  came  up  before  our  government  for  settlement,  as  it  had 
long  before  in  the  case  of  Japan. 

When  it  did  begin  to  rain  it  poured.  Within  one  year  the 
Corean  government  having  three  American  cases  to  deal  with,  gave 
a startling  illustration  of  its  policy — with  the  distressed,  kindness  ; 
with  the  robber,  powder  and  iron  ; with  the  invader,  death  and 
annihilation. 


AMERICAN  RELATIONS  WITH  COREA. 


391 


On  June  24,  1866,  the  American  schooner  Surprise  was  wrecked 
off  the  coast  (of  Whang-hai  ?).  The  approach  of  any  foreign  vessel 
was  especially  dangerous  at  this  time,  as  the  crews  might  be  mis- 
taken for  Frenchmen  and  killed  by  the  people  from  patriotic  im- 
pulses. Nevertheless  Captain  McCaslin  and  his  men  with  their 
Chinese  cook,  after  being  first  well  catechised  by  the  local  mag- 
istrate, and  secondly  by  a commissioner  sent  from  Seoul,  were 
kindly  treated  and  well  fed,  and  provided  with  clothing,  medicines, 
and  tobacco.  By  orders  of  Tai-wen  Kun,  they  were  escorted  on 
horseback  to  Ai-chiu,  and,  after  being  feasted  there,  were  conducted 
safely  to  the  Border  Gate.  Thence,  after  a hard  journey  via  Muk- 
den, they  got  to  Niu-chwang  and  to  the  United  States  consul.  A 
gold  watch  was  voted  by  Congress  to  the  Rev.  Pcre  Gillie  for  his 
kindness  to  these  men  while  in  Mukden. 

From  a passage  in  one  of  the  letters  of  the  Corean  Government, 
we  gather  that  the  crew  of  still  another  American  ship  were  hos- 
pitably treated  after  shipwreck,  but  of  the  circumstances  we  are 
ignorant.  Of  the  General  Sherman  affair  more  is  known. 

The  General  Sherman  was  an  American  schooner,  owned  by  a 
Mr.  Preston,  who  was  making  a voyage  for  health.  She  was  con- 
signed to  Messrs.  Meadows  & Co.,  a British  firm  in  Tien-tsin,  and 
reached  that  port  July,  1866.  After  delivery  of  her  cargo,  an  ar- 
rangement was  made  by  the  firm  and  owner  to  load  her  with  goods 
likely  to  be  saleable  in  Corea,  such  as  cotton  cloth,  glass,  tin-plate, 
etc.,  and  despatch  her  there  on  an  experimental  voyage  in  the  hope 
of  thus  opening  the  country  to  commerce. 

Leaving  Tien-tsin  July  29th,  the  vessel  touched  at  Chifu,  and 
took  on  board  Mr.  Hogarth,  a young  Englishman,  and  a Chinese 
shroff,1 2  familiar  with  Corean  money.  The  complement  of  the  ves- 
sel was  now  five  white  foreigners,  and  nineteen  Malay  and  Chinese 
sailors.  The  owner,  Preston,  the  master,  Page,  and  the  mate,  Wil- 
son, were  Americans.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Thomas,  who  had  learned 
Corean  from  refugees  at  Chifu,  and  had  made  a trip  to  Whang-hai 
on  a Chinese  junk,  went  on  board  as  a passenger  to  improve  his 
knowledge  of  the  language.3 


1 These  shroffs  are  experts  in  handling  money.  They  can  detect  counter- 
feits by  the  touch,  and,  with  incredible  celerity,  can  reckon  amounts  to  thou- 
sandths of  a cent  on  the  abacus.  One  or  more  of  them  are  found  in  nearly 
every  one  of  the  hanks  and  hongs  in  Eurasian  ports. 

2 Some  weeks  before,  he  had  offered  to  penetrate  the  peninsula  as  mission- 

ary and  agent  of  the  Scottish  National  Bible  Society.  The  Coreans  who  had 


392 


COREA. 


From  the  first  the  character  of  the  expedition  was  suspected, 
because  the  men  were  rather  too  heavily  armed  for  a peaceful  trad- 
ing voyage.  It  was  believed  in  China  that  the  royal  coffins  in  the 
tombs  of  Ping-an,  wherein  more  than  one  dynasty  of  Clio-sen  lay 
buried,  were  of  solid  gold  ; and  it  was  broadly  hinted  that  the  ex- 
pedition had  something  to  do  with  these. 

The  schooner,  whether  merchant  or  invader,  leaving  Chifu,  took 
a west-northwest  direction,  and  made  for  the  mouth  of  the  Ta  Tong 
River.  There  they  met  the  Chinese  captain  of  a Chifu  junk,  who 
agreed  to  pilot  them  up  the  river.  He  continued  on  the  General 
Sherman  during  four  tides,  or  two  days.  Then  leaving  her,  he  re- 
turned to  the  river’s  mouth,  and  sailed  back  to  Chifu,  where  he  was 
met  and  questioned  by  the  firm  of  Meadows  & Co. 

No  further  direct  intelligence  was  ever  received  from  the  un- 
fortunate party. 

The  time  chosen  for  this  “ experimental  trading  voyage  ” was 
strangely  inopportune.  The  whole  country  was  excited  over  the 
expected  invasion  of  the  French,  and  to  a Corean — especially  in  the 
north,  where  not  one  in  ten  thousand  had  ever  seen  a white  for- 
eigner—any  man  dressed  in  foreign  clothes  would  be  taken  for  a 
Frenchman,  as  were  even  the  Japanese  crew  of  the  gunboat  Unyo 
Kuan  in  1875.  An  armed  vessel  would  certainly  be  taken  for  a 
French  ship,  and  made  the  object  of  patriotic  vengeance. 

According  to  one  report,  the  hatches  of  the  schooner  were  fas- 
tened down,  after  the  crew  had  been  driven  beneath,  and  set  on  fire. 
According  to  another,  all  were  decapitated.  The  Coreans  burned 
the  wood  work  for  its  iron,  and  took  the  cannon  for  models. 

During  this  same  month  of  August,  1866,  the  Jewish  merchant 
Ernest  Oppert,  in  the  steamer  Emperor,  entered  the  Han  River,  and 
had  secret  interviews  with  some  of  the  native  Christians,  who  wrote 
to  him  in  Latin.  Communications  were  also  held  with  the  gov- 
ernor of  Kang-wa,  and  valuable  charts  were  made  by  Captain 
James.  One  month  later,  in  September,  the  French  war-vessels 
made  their  appearance. 

The  U.  S.  steamship  Wachusett,  despatched  by  Admiral  Rowan 
to  inquire  into  the  Sherman  affair,  reached  Chifu  January  14, 


accompanied  Bishop  Ridel  to  Chifu,  and  who  had  met  Dr.  Williamson, 
volunteered  to  be  his  guides,  and  he  had  decided  to  go  with  them.  When  the 
opportunity  of  going  by  the  American  vessel  offered  itself,  he  changed  his  plan. 
Against  the  advice  of  his  friends,  who  suspected  the  character  of  the  expedition, 
he  joined  the  party. 


AMERICAN  RELATIONS  WITH  COREA. 


393 


1867,  and  is  said  to  have  taken  on  board  the  Chinese  pilot  of  the 
General  Sherman,  and  the  Rev.  Mr.  Corbett,  an  American  mission- 
ary, to  act  as  interpreter.  Leaving  Chifu  January  21st,  they  cast 
anchor,  January  23d,  at  the  mouth  of  the  large  inlet  opposite  Sir 
James  Hall  group,  which  indents  Whang-hai  province.  This  estu- 
ary they  erroneously  supposed  to  be  the  Ta  Tong  River  leading  to 
Ping-an  city,  whereas  they  were  half  a degree  too  far  south,  as  the 
chart  made  by  themselves  shows. 

A letter  was  despatched,  through  the  official  of  Cow  Island,  near 


the  anchorage,  to  the  prefect  of  the  large  city  nearest  the  place  of 
the  Sherman  affair,  demanding  that  the  murderers  be  produced  on 
the  deck  of  the  Wachusett.  The  city  of  Ping-an  was  about  seventy- 
five  miles  distant.  The  letter  probably  went  to  Hai-chiu,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  province.  Five  days  elapsed  before  the  answer  arrived, 
during  which  the  surveying  boats  were  busy.  Many  natives  were 
met  and  spoken  to,  who  all  told  one  story,  that  the  Sherman’s  crew 
were  murdered  by  the  people,  and  not  by  official  instigation.1 

1 A broad  streak  of  light  was  thrown  upon  at  least  one  possible  cause  of  the 
Sherman  tragedy,  by  the  statement  of  the  natives  that  Chinese  pirates  fre- 
quently descend  on  the  coast  and  kill  and  rob  the  Coreans.  During  the  pre- 


894 


COREA. 


On  the  29th,  an  officer  from  one  of  the  villages  of  the  district 
appeared,  “ whose  presence  inspired  the  greatest  dread  among  the 
people.”  An  interview  was  held,  during  which  Commander  Shu- 
feldt  possessed  his  soul  in  patience. 

To  the  polished  American's  eye,  the  Corean’s  manner  was 
haughty  and  imperious.  He  was  utterly  beyond  the  reach  of  rea- 
son and  of  argument.  In  his  person  he  seemed  “ the  perfect  type 
of  a cruel  and  vindictive  savage.”  The  Corean’s  impressions  of  the 
American,  not  being  in  print,  are  unknown. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  give  the  details  of  the  fruitless  interview. 
The  American  could  get  neither  information  nor  satisfaction  ; 
the  gist  of  the  Corean  reiteration  was,  “Go  away  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible.” Commander  Shufeldt,  bound  by  his  orders,  could  do 
nothing  more,  and  being  compelled  also  by  stress  of  weather,  came 
away. 

In  1867,  Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams,  Secretary  of  the  Legation  of 
the  United  States  at  Peking,  succeeded  in  obtaining  an  interview 
with  a member  of  the  Corean  embassy,  who  told  him  that  after 
the  General  Sherman  got  aground,  she  careened  over,  as  the  tide 
receded,  and  her  crew  landed  to  guard  or  float  her.  The  natives 
gathered  around  them,  and  before  long  an  altercation  took  place 
between  the  two  parties,  which  soon  led  to  blows  and  bloodshed. 
A general  attack  began  upon  the  foreigners,  in  which  every  man 
was  killed  by  the  mob.  About  twenty  of  the  natives  lost  their 
lives.  Dr.  Williams’  comment  is,  “ The  evidence  goes  to  uphold 
the  presumption  that  they  invoked  their  sad  fate  by  some  rash  or 
violent  act  toward  the  natives.”  Dr.  Williams  also  met  a Chinese 
pilot,  Yu  Wautai,  who  reported  that  in  1867  he  had  seen  the  hull 
of  a foreign  vessel  lying  on  the  south  bank  of  the  river,  about  ten 
miles  up  from  the  sea.  The  hull  was  full  of  water.  A Corean  from 
Sparrow  Island  had  told  him  that  the  murder  of  the  Sherman’s 
crew  was  entirely  the  work  of  the  people  and  farmers,  and  not  of 
the  magistrates  or  soldiery. 

Still  determined  to  leam  something  of  the  fate  of  the  Sherman’s 
crew,  since  reports  were  current  that  two  or  more  of  them  were 
still  alive  and  in  prison,  Admiral  Rowan,  in  May,  1867,  despatched 
another  vessel,  which  this  time  got  into  the  right  river.  Com- 

vious  year,  several  natives  had  been  killed  by  Chinese  pirates  near  the  Wachn- 
sett’s  anchorage.  As  ten  of  the  crew  of  the  Sherman  were  Canton  Chinamen, 
it  is  probable  that  the  very  sight  of  them  on  an  aimed  vessel  would  inflame 
the  Coreans  to  take  their  long-waited  for  revenge. 


AMERICAN  RELATIONS  WITH  COREA. 


395 


mander  Febiger,  in  the  U.  S.  steamship  Shenandoah,  besides  sur- 
veying the  “ Ping  Yang  Inlet,”  learned  this  version  of  the  affair  : 

A foreign  vessel  arrived  in  the  river  two  years  before.  The 
local  officials  went  on  board  and  addressed  the  two  foreign  officers 
of  the  ship  in  respectful  language.  The  latter  grossly  insulted  the 
native  dignitaries,  he.,  “ they  turned  round  and  went  to  sleep.” 

A man  on  board,  whom  they  spoke  of  as  “Tony,1  a French- 
man,” used  violent  and  very  impolite  language  toward  them.  The 
Coreans  treated  their  visitors  kindly,  but  warned  them  of  their 
danger,  and  the  unlawfulness  of  penetrating  into,  or  trading  in  the 
country.  Nevertheless,  the  foreigners  went  up  the  river  to  Ping-an 
city,  where  they  seized  the  “adjutant-general’s”  ship,  put  him  in 
chains,  and  proceeded  to  rob  the  junks  and  their  crews.  The 
people  of  the  city  aroused  to  wrath,  attacked  the  foreign  ship  with 
fire-arms  and  cannon  ; they  set  adrift  fire-rafts,  and  even  made  a 
hand-to-hand  fight  with  pikes,  knives,  and  swords.  The  foreigners 
fought  desperately,  but  the  Coreans  overpowered  them.  Finally, 
the  ship,  having  caught  fire,  blew  up  with  a terrific  report. 

This  story  was  not  of  course  believed  by  the  American  officers, 
but  even  the  best  wishers  and  friends  of  the  Ping-an  adventurers 
cannot  stifle  suspicion  of  either  cruelty  or  insult  to  the  natives. 
Knowing  the  character  of  certain  members  of  the  party,  and  re- 
membering the  kindness  shown  to  the  crew  of  the  Surprise,  few  of 
the  unprejudiced  will  believe  that  the  General  Sherman's  crew  were 
murdered  without  cause. 


In  1884,  Lieutenant  J.  B.  Bernadon,  U.S.N.,  made  a journey  from  Seoul 
to  Ping-an,  and,  being  able  to  speak  Corean,  learned  the  following  from  native 
Christians.  The  Sherman,  arriving  during  the  heavy  midsummer  rains,  which 
make  the  river  impassable  to  native  boats,  was  seen  from  the  city  walls  and 
caused  great  excitement.  When  the  waters  subsided  the  governor  sent  officers 
to  inquire  her  mission.  Unfortunately,  to  gratify  their  curiosity,  the  common 
people  set  out  also  in  a large  fleet  of  boats,  which  the  Sherman’s  crew  mistook 
for  a hostile  demonstration,  and  fired  guns  in  the  air  to  warn  them  off.  Then 
all  the  boats  returned.  When  the  river  fell  the  Sherman  grounded  and 
careened  over,  which  being  seen  from  the  city  walls  a fleet  of  boats  set  out 
with  hostile  intent  and  were  fired  upon.  Officers  and  people,  now  enraged, 
started  fire-rafts,  and  soon  the  vessel,  though  with  white  flag  hoisted,  was  in 
flames.  Of  those  who  leaped  in  the  river  most  were  drowned.  Of  those 
picked  up  one  Tchoi-nan-un  (Rev.  Mr.  Thomas),  who  was  able  to  talk  Corean, 
explained  the  meaning  of  the  white  flag,  and  begged  to  be  surrendered  to 
China.  His  prayer  was  in  vain.  In  a few  days  all  the  prisoners  were  led  out 
and  publicly  executed. 


CHAPTER  XLV. 


A BODY-SNATCHING  EXPEDITION. 

Early  in  May,  1867,  the  foreign  settlement  at  Skanghae  was 
thrown  into  excitement  by  the  report  of  the  return  of  an  unsuccess- 
ful piratical  expedition  from  Corea.  The  ennui  of  Eurasian  port 
life  was  turned  into  a lively  glow  of  excitement.  Conversation  at 
the  clubs  and  tea-tables,  which  had  wilted  down  to  local  gossip, 
Wade’s  policy,  paper  hunts,  and  the  races,  now  turned  upon  the 
politics  and  geography,  methods  of  royal  sepulture,  mortuary  arch- 
itecture, antiquities,  customs,  and  costumes  in  the  mysterious  pen- 
insula. The  pleasures  of  wheelbarrow  rides,  and  visits  to  the  bub- 
bling springs,  now  palled  before  the  pending  trial  at  the  United 
States  consular  court. 

An  American  citizen  was  charged  with  making  an  “ unlawful  and 
scandalous  expedition  ” to  Corea,  and  of  violently  attempting  to 
land  in  a country  with  which  the  United  States  had  no  treaty  rela- 
tions. It  was  further  stated  that  he  had  gone  to  exhume  the  bones 
of  a defunct  king  in  order  to  hold  them  for  sale  or  ransom.  In 
plain  English,  it  was  said  to  be  a piratical  and  body-snatching  de- 
scent upon  the  grave-yards  of  Cko-sen,  to  dig  up  royal  remains, 
not  for  the  purpose  of  dissection,  nor  in  the  interests  of  science  or 
of  archaeology,  but  for  the  sake  of  money,  which  money  was  to  be 
extorted  from  the  regent  and  court  of  Seoul. 

The  idea,  of  course,  awoke  merriment  as  well  as  interest.  One 
may  well  understand  why  Professor  Marsh  should  make  periodical 
descents  upon  the  bone-yards  of  Red  Cloud’s  territory,  and  exhibit 
his  triumphs — skeletons  of  toothed  birds  and  of  geological  horses 
as  small  as  Corean  ponies — in  a museum  under  glass  cases,  well 
mounted  with  shining  brass  springs  and  iron  joints.  Even  a school- 
boy can  without  laughing  think  of  Dr.  Sekliemann  rooting  among 
the  tombs  of  Mycenae,  and  Di  Cesnola  sifting  the  dust  of  Kurium  for 
its  golden  treasures.  Even  the  night  picture  of  resurrectionists, 


A BODY-SNATCHING  EXPEDITION. 


397 


emptying  graves  in  a Scotch  kirk-yard  for  subjects  to  sell  at  a 
pound  sterling  apiece,  has  few  elements  of  humor  about  it. 

But  to  conceive  of  civilized  “Christians,”  or  Israelites,  charter- 
ing a steamer  to  exhume  and  steal  the  carcase  and  mouldering 
bones  of  a heathen  king,  to  hold  them  in  pawn  to  raise  money  on 
them  created  more  laughter  than  frowns  or  tears.  It  was  thought 
that  the  sign  under  which  the  ship  sailed,  instead  of  being  the  flag 
of  the  North  German  Confederation,  should  have  been  the  three 
golden  balls,  such  as  hang  above  a pawnbroker’s  windows. 

The  person  on  trial  was  formerly  an  interpreter  at  the  United 
States  consulate,  and,  having  learned  Chinese  from  childhood,  was 
able  to  speak  the  language  fluently,  and  thus  converse,  by  means 
of  tongue  or  pencil,  with  the  many  Coreans  who  know  the  stand- 
ard of  communication  in  Eastern  Asia  either  by  sound  or  sight. 
It  was  he  also  who  furnished  the  cash  for  the  expedition,  the  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  which  was  one  Oppert,  a North  German 
subject ; the  guide  was  a French  Jesuit  priest  named  Farout  (evi- 
dently a fictitious  name)  who  spoke  Corean,  having  been  in  the 
country  as  a missionary.  These  three  were  the  leaders  of  the  ex- 
pedition. 

Before  going,  the  American  had  told  Consul  Seward  that  his 
object  was  to  take  a Corean  embassy  to  Europe,  to  negociate  trea- 
ties, and  to  explain  to  the  governments  of  France  and  the  United 
States  the  murder  of  their  subjects  in  Corea.  Four  Coreans,  with 
the  French  missionary  Bishop  Ridel,  had  been  in  Shanghae  a short 
time  before,  April  24,  1867  ; and  the  defendant  declared  that  it  was 
from  these  four  persons,  whom  he  styled  “ commissioners,”  that  he 
got  his  information  as  to  the  desire  of  the  Corean  government  for 
treaties,  etc.  He  also  stated  that  this  knowledge  was  held  only  by 
the  four  Coreans,  himself,  and  a Jewish  pedler,  who  had  several 
times  penetrated  into  Corea,  and  by  whom  the  Corean  “ commis- 
sioners,” had  been  brought  to  Shanghae.  These  “commissioners,” 
he  averred,  had  a new  and  correct  version  of  the  General  Sherman 
affair.  According  to  their  report,  some  of  the  crew  had  become 
embroiled  in  a row  growing  out  of  the  improper  treatment  of  some 
native  women,  and  were  arrested.  The  crew  went  to  rescue  them. 
They  succeeded,  and  took  also  two  native  officers  on  board  for 
hostages.  This  so  enraged  the  people  that  they  attacked  the  crew, 
killed  eight  at  once,  and  made  prisoners  of  the  others  who  were 
still  alive. 

Readers  of  our  narrative  will  smile  at  discovering  the  poor 


398 


COREA. 


fishermen  who  brought  their  bishop  across  the  Yellow  Sea  in  their 
boat  thus  transformed  into  “ ambassadors.” 

One  thing  seemed  to  be  on  the  surface — that  this  modem  Jason 
and  his  argonauts  had  gone  out  to  find  a golden  fleece,  but  came 
back  shorn. 

On  the  return  of  the  expedition,  Mr.  Seward  questioned  the 
American  closely,  sifted  the  matter,  and  finally,  being  satisfied  that 
something  was  wrong,  put  him  on  trial,  eliciting  the  facts  which 
seem  to  be  the  following  : 

Oppert,  who  had  been  at  the  Naipo,  and  up  the  Han  River  in 
the  Emperor  and  Rona,  secured  a steamer  named  the  China,  of  six 
hundred  and  eighty  tons,  with  a steam  tender,  the  Greta,  of  sixty 
tons,  and  run  the  North  German  flag  up  at  the  fore.  The  comple- 
ment of  the  ship  was  eight  Europeans,  twenty  Malays  from  Ma- 
nilla, and  about  one  hundred  Chinamen,  these  last  were  a motley 
crew  of  sailors,  laborers,  and  coolies— the  riff-raff  of  humanity, 
such  as  swarm  in  every  Chinese  port.  With  muskets  in  their  hands 
— it  is  doubtful  whether  a dozen  of  them  had  ever  fired  off  a gun 
— they  were  to  form  the  “ forces”  or  military  escort  of  the  expedi- 
tion, which  was  to  negotiate  “ treaties,”  embark  an  embassy  to  travel 
round  the  globe,  and  introduce  the  Hermit  Nation  to  the  world. 

The  “fleet”  left  Shanghae  April  30,  1867,  and  steamed  to  Na- 
gasaki ; in  which  Japanese  port  she  remained  two  days,  taking  on 
board  coal,  water,  and  ten  cases  of  muskets.  The  prow  was  then 
headed  for  Chung-chong  province.  They  arrived  in  Prince  Jerome 
Gulf  at  10  p.m.  on  Friday,  May  8th.  The  next  day  at  10  a.m.  they 
moved  farther  in  the  river.  In  the  afternoon  they  succeeded  in 
getting  two  small  boats,  or  sampans,  partly  by  persuasion  and  pay, 
partly  by  force.  The  expedition  was  then  organized,  Oppert  com- 
manding. The  mate,  engineer,  and  regular  Chinese  manned  the 
tender  which  was  to  tow  the  boats.  The  muskets  were  unpacked 
and  distributed  on  deck,  and  the  coolies  were  armed,  equipped, 
taught  the  difference  between  the  butt  and  muzzle  of  their  weap- 
ons, and  given  their  orders.  Four  men  carried  spades  or  coal 
shovels  to  exhume  the  bones  and  treasure. 

The  French  priest  who  had  been  in  Corea  acted  as  guide  and 
interpreter.  Shortly  after  midnight,  and  very  early  on  Sunday 
morning,  the  steam  tender  began  to  move  up  the  river,  stopping 
at  a point  about  forty  miles  from  the  sea.  The  armed  crowd 
landed,  and  the  march  across  the  open  country  to  the  tomb  was 
begun.  As  they  proceeded,  the  neighborhood  became  alive  with 


A BODY-SNATCHING  EXPEDITION. 


399 


curious  people,  and  the  hills  were  white  with  people  gazing  at  the 
strange  procession.  A few  natives  being  met  on  the  way,  the 
French  priest  stopped  to  speak  with  them.  The  party  rested  for 
a while  at  a temple,  for  the  march  was  getting  tiresome,  having 
already  occupied  several  hours. 

Reaching  the  burial-place  [near  Totta-san?],  they  found  a raised 
mound  with  a slab  of  stone  on  each  side  at  the  base.  Beneath  this 
tomb  was  the  supposed  treasure.  Was  it  bones  or  gold  ? 

The  four  men  with  spades  now  began  their  work,  and  soon 
levelled  the  mound.  They  had  dug  out  a considerable  quantity  of 
earth,  when  their  shovels  struck  on  a rocky  slab,  which  seemed  to 
be  the  lid  of  the  tomb  proper,  or  the  sarcophagus.  This  they 
could  not  move.  All  efforts  to  budge  or  pry  it  up  were  vain. 
Having  no  crowbars  they  were,  after  much  useless  labor,  with  per- 
haps not  a little  swearing,  compelled  to  give  up  their  task. 

On  their  return  march,  the  exasperated  Coreans,  plucking  up 
courage,  attempted  to  molest  them,  but  the  marauders,  firing  their 
guns  in  the  air,  kept  them  assailants  at  a respectful  distance.  The 
party  and  tender  dropped  down  the  river  and  rejoined  the  steamer 
at  noon,  the  weather  being  foggy. 

Further  proceedings  of  the  expedition  are  known  only  in  out- 
line. The  steamer  weighed  anchor  and  left  for  Kang-wa  Island. 
They  put  themselves  in  communication  with  the  local  magistrate 
during  three  days.  On  the  third  day  a party  landed  from  the 
ship,  and  while  on  shore  were  fired  upon.  Two  men  were  killed 
and  one  wounded. 

The  expedition  remained  in  Corea  ten  days,  returning  to  Sliang- 
hae  after  two  weeks’  absence. 

In  the  foregoing  trial  it  is  most  evident  that  many  details  were 
concealed.  The  quantity  of  truth  divulged  was  probably  in  pro- 
portion to  the  whole  amount,  as  the  puffs  of  steam  from  a safety- 
valve  are  to  the  volume  in  the  boiler.  The  accused  let  out  just 
enough  to  save  them  from  conviction  and  to  secure  their  acquittal. 

The  defendant  was  discharged  with  the  Scotch  verdict  “not 
proven.”  Mr.  George  F.  Seward,  however,  wrote  to  the  State 
Department  at  Washington  his  opinion,  that  the  expedition  was 
“ an  attempt  to  take  from  their  tombs  the  remains  of  one  or  more 
sovereigns  of  Corea,  for  the  purpose,  it  would  seem,  of  holding 
them  to  ransom.” 

Whether  any  great  amount  of  treasure  is  ever  buried  with  the 
sovereigns  or  grandees  of  Cho-sen  is  not  known  to  us.  Certain  it 


400 


COREA. 


is  that  the  national  sentiment  is  that  of  horror  against  the  distur- 
bance or  rilling  of  sepulchres.  Now  they  had  before  their  eyes  a 
fresh  confirmation  of  their  suspicions  that  the  chief  purpose  of 
foreign  invaders  was  to  rob  the  dead  and  violate  the  most  holy 
instincts  of  humanity.  The  national  mind  now  settled  into  the 
conviction  that,  beyond  all  doubt,  foreigners  were  barbarians  and 
many  of  them  thieves  and  robbers.  With  such  eyes  were  they 


ready  to  look  upon  the  flag  and  ships  of  the  United  States  when 
they  came  in  1871. 

Note. —Nearly  every  word  of  the  above  was  written  in  December,  1877,  the 
information  having  been  derived  from  the  United  States  Diplomatic  Correspon- 
dence. At  that  time  we  suspected  that  “ Farout  ” was  the  fictitious  name  of 
Feron,  the  French  Roman  Catholic  missionary,  who  had  escaped  the  persecu- 
tions of  1866.  It  seems  that  three  countries  and  three  religions  were  repre- 
sented in  this  body-snatching  expedition,  which  was  of  a truly  iuternational 
character. 

In  March,  1880,  there  was  published  in  London  and  New  York  the 
English  translation  of  “ Ein  Verschlossenes  Land,”  a work  printed  in  Germany. 
As  we  read  “ A Forbidden  Land:  Voyages  to  the  Corea,”  it  dawned  upon  us 


A BODY-SNATCHING  EXPEDITION. 


401 


that  the  author  was  none  other  than  “the  needy  Hamburgh  trader,”  “the 
Jewish  pedler,”  of  the  Consular  Court  trial  of  1867.  It  was  even  so.  Coolly 
and  without  denial,  the  author  tells  us  that  the  main  object  of  his  last  voyage 
was  to  “ remove  ” some  buried  relics  held  in  great  veneration  by  that  “ blood 
thirsty  tyrant,”  the  Tai-wen  Kun,  or  regent.  The  project  was  first  suggested  to 
him  by  the  French  priest,  who,  as  the  author  takes  pains  to  tell  us,  was  not  a 
Jesuit,  nor  had  ever  belonged  to  that  order  (p.  295),  though  he  gives  Feron's 
proposition  in  his  own  words  (p.  299),  the  italics  being  ours  : 

“ If  the  project  I am  going  to  lay  before  you  (i.e.,  to  rob  the  grave)  will  at 
first  sight  appear  to  you  strange  and  out  of  the  common,  remember  that  a great 
aim  can  never  be  gained  by  small  means,  and  that  we  must  look  at  this  affair 
from  another  point  of  view  than  that  which  may  be  taken  by  narrow-minded 
people.” 

The  details  of  the  landing,  march  [to  near  Totta-san  ?] , excavation,  and  re- 
treat are  duly  narrated,  the  blame  of  failure  being  laid  Upon  one  unlucky 
wight  who  was  “ the  only  disreputable  character  we  had  with  us !” 

After  leaving  Prince  Jerome  Gulf,  the  China  proceeded  up  the  Han  River 
to  Tricault  Island  (see  map,  page  379),  “about  twenty  minutes’  steam  below 
Kang-wha.”  There  the  leader  received  a note  from  the  Taiouen-goon  (the 
Tai-wen  Kun,  or  regent),  the  gist  of  which  was,  “Corea  has  no  need  of  foreign 
intruders.”  While  holding  a parley  near  the  wall  of  a town  on  Tricault  Island, 
“the  only  disreputable  character”  in  the  party  again  got  them  into  trouble. 
This  black  sheep  was  a German  sailor,  who,  hungering  after  fresh  veal,  had 
stolen  a calf  ; an  act  which  drew  the  fire  of  the  native  soldiery  on  the  city  wall. 
The  thief  received  a ball  in  his  arm,  which  compelled  him  to  drop  the  calf 
and  run,  while  one  Manilaman  was  shot  dead.  It  is  not  known  how  far  the 
statistics  of  a Corean  warfare  diverge  from  those  elsewhere,  nor  how  many 
tons  of  lead  are  required  to  kill  one  man,  but  owing  to  the  incredibly  bad  aim 
of  the  jingal  shooters,  the  remainder  of  the  party  of  twenty  or  more  escaped 
their  deserts  and  reached  the  tender.  The  next  morning  the  expedition  set 
out  on  the  return  to  Shangliae. 

After  a review  of  this  book  (in  The  Nation  of  April  7,  1880),  which  the  author 
issued  after  his  imprisonment,  the  following  note  appeared  in  the  same  paper 
of  April  21st: 

Oppert’s  Corean  Outrage. 

To  the  Editor  of  The  Nation  : 

Sir  : The  notice  of  Oppert’s  book  on  Corea  recalls  some  curious  incidents 
to  my  mind.  The  raid  on  the  King’s  tomb  was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
affairs  ever  known.  Its  inception  and  failure  might  have  been  concealed  but 
for  the  Coreans,  when  they  attacked  the  ghouls,  killing  an  unfortunate 
Manilaman.  Hearing  of  this,  the  Spanish  consul  applied  to  Mr.  Seward 
(United  States  Consul-General  at  Shanghae),  who  at  once  arrested  Jenkins.  I 
was  one  of  the  four  “ associates  ” summoned  to  sit  with  the  consul-general  in 
the  trial,  and  well  remember  what  a perfect  burlesque  it  was.  The  Chinese, 
who  had  told  a plain  and  coherent  story  on  preliminary  examination,  were  as 
dumb  as  oysters  on  the  stand.  When  all  had  been  called,  the  defendant’s 
counsel  said  that  he  would  rest  his  case  on  their  testimony.  Conviction  was 
26 


402 


COREA. 


impossible,  but  in  the  minds  of  those  informed  on  the  subject,  the  wicked- 
ness of  this  buccaneering  expedition  was  remembered  as  surpassing  even  the 
absurdity  of  an  attempt  to  destroy  a granite  mausoleum  with  coal  shovels. 
There  is  a monstrous  impertinence  in  Oppert’s  publishing  an  account  of  a 
piratical  fiasco  which  is  reported  to  have  cost  him  a term  of  imprisonment  at 
home. 

A.  A.  Hayes,  Jr. 

New  York,  April  15,  1880. 


CHAPTER  XLVI. 


“OUR  LITTLE  WAR  WITH  THE  HEATHEN.” 

The  representations  made  to  the  Department  of  State  at  Wash- 
ington by  Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams,  concerning  the  General  Sherman, 
and  by  Consul-General  George  F.  Seward,  in  the  matter  of  the 
China,  affair,  directed  the  attention  of  the  Government  to  the 
opening  of  Corea  to  American  commerce.  The  memorial  of  Mr. 
Seward,  dated  October  14,  18G8,  reviewed  the  advantages  to  be 
gained  and  the  obstacles  in  the  way.  The  need  of  protection  to 
American  seamen  was  pointed  out,  and  as  Japan  had  been  opened 
to  international  relations  by  American  diplomacy,  why  should  not  a 
smaller  nation  yield  to  persuasion  ? American  merchants  in  China 
having  seconded  Mr.  Seward’s  proposal,  the  State  Department  took 
the  matter  into  serious  consideration,  and,  in  1870,  resolved  to  un- 
dertake the  difficult  enterprise. 

The  servants  of  the  United  States  who  were  charged  with  this 
delicate  mission  were,  Mr.  Frederick  F.  Low,  Minister  of  the 
United  States  to  Peking,  and  Rear-Admiral  John  Rodgers,  Com- 
mander-in-Chief  of  the  Asiatic  squadron.  Mr.  Low  was  directed  by 
Secretary  Fish  to  gain  all  possible  knowledge  from  Peking,  and 
then  proceed  on  the  admiral’s  flag-ship  to  the  Corean  capital.  He 
was  to  make  a treaty  of  commerce  if  possible,  but  his  chief  aim  was 
to  secure  provision  for  the  protection  of  shipwrecked  mariners.  He 
was  to  avoid  a conflict  of  force,  tinless  it  could  not  be  avoided 
without  dishonor.  “ The  responsibility  of  war  or  peace  ” was  to  be 
left  with  him  and  not  with  the  admiral. 1 

There  was  at  this  time,  all  over  the  far  East,  a feeling  of  uncer- 

1 Mr.  Low,  who  had  served  one  term  in  Congress  and  as  governor  of  Cali- 
fornia from  1864  to  1868,  had  been  chosen  by  President  Grant  to  be  minister  to 
China  the  year  before,  1869,  was  new  to  his  duties.  He  was  in  the  prime  of 
life,  being  fifty-two  years  of  age.  All  his  despatches  show  that  Cho-sen  was  as 
unknown  to  him  as  Thibet  or  Anam,  and  from  the  first  he  had  scarcely  one  ray 
of  hope  in  the  success  of  the  mission. 


404 


COREA. 


tainty  and  alarm  among  foreigners,  and  many  portentious  signs 
seemed  to  indicate  a general  uprising,  both  in  China  and  Japan, 
against  foreigners.  The  example  of  Corea  in  expelling  or  behead- 
ing the  French  priests  acted  as  powerful  leaven  in  the  minds  of  the 
fanatical  foreigner-haters  in  the  two  countries  adjoining.  The 
“ mikado  reverencers,”  who  in  Japan  had  overthrown  the  “ Tycoon  ” 
and  abolished  the  dual  system  of  government,  made  these  objects 
only  secondary  to  the  expulsion  of  all  aliens.  The  cry  of  “ honor  the 
mikado  ” was  joined  to  the  savage  yell  of  the  Jo-i  (alien-haters), 
“expel  the  barbarians.”  In  China  the  smothered  feelings  of  mur- 
derous animosity  were  almost  ready  to  burst.  The  air  was  idled 
with  alarms,  even  wlnle  the  American  fleet  was  preparing 1 * for  Corea. 

Rear-Admiral  Rodgers,3  who  had  taken  command,  and  relieved 
Admiral  Rowan,  August  20,  1869,  began  his  preparations  with  vigor. 

In  a consultation  held  at  Peking  during  November,  1870,  be- 
tween the  admiral,  minister,  and  consul  general,  the  time  for  the 
expedition  was  fixed  for  the  month  of  May,  1871.  Mr.  Seward 
then  left  fcr  a visit  to  India,  and  Mr.  Low  despatched,  through  the 
Tribunal  of  Rites  at  Peking,  a letter  to  the  King  of  Corea.  After 
vast  circumlocution,  it  emerged  from  the  mazes  of  Chinese  court 
etiquette,  and  by  a special  courier  reached  the  regent  at  Seoul. 
In  this,  however,  the  Chinese  were  doing  a great  favor.  No  answer 
was  received  from  Seoul  before  the  expedition  saded. 

Meanwldle  the  German  minister  to  Japan  (now  in  Peking), 

1 Admiral  Rodgers  left  New  York,  April  9,  1869,  with  the  Colorado  and 
Alaska.  The  Benicia  had  left  Portsmouth  March  2d,  and  the  Palos  set  sail 
from  Boston  June  20th.  These  vessels,  with  the  Monocacv  and  Asliuelot,  were 
to  form  the  Asiatic  squadron  of  Admiral  Rodgers.  Of  our  vessels  on  the  station 

during  the  previous  year,  two  had  returned  home,  two  had  been  sold,  the  rot- 
ten Idaho  was  moored  at  Yokohama  as  a store-ship,  and  the  Oneida,  which  had 
been  sunk  by  the  British  mail-steamer  Bombay,  lay  with  her  uncoffined  dead 
untouched  and  neglected  by  the  great  Government  of  the  United  States.  Ad- 
miral Rodgers  was  so  delayed  by  repairs  to  the  Ashuelot,  that  finally,  in  order 
to  gain  the  benefit  of  the  spring  tides,  had  to  sail  without  this  vessel. 

3 Rear-Admiral  John  Rodgers,  who  commanded  the  fleet,  was  a veteran  in 
war,  in  naval  science,  and  in  polar  research.  He  had  served  in  the  Seminole 
and  Mexican  campaigns,  and  through  the  civil  war  on  the  iron-clad  monitors. 
He  had  visited  the  Pacific  in  1853,  when  in  command  of  the  John  Hancock. 
He  had  cruised  in  the  China  seas  and  sailed  through  Behring’s  Straits.  He, 
too,  was  in  the  prime  of  life,  being  at  this  time  fifty-eight  years  of  age.  His 
whole  conduct  of  the  expedition  displayed  consummate  skill,  and  marked  him 
in  this,  as  in  his  many  other  enterprises,  as  “ one  of  the  foremost  naval  men  of 
the  age.”  Yet  princes  in  naval  science  are  not  always  princes  in  diplomacy. 


•‘OUR  LITTLE  WAR  WITH  THE  HEATHEN.” 


405 


Herr  M.  Von  Brandt,  had  landed  from  the  Hertha  at  Fusan,  and 
attempted  to  hold  an  interview  with  the  governor  of  Tong-nai.  He 
was  accompanied  by  the  Japanese  representatives  at  Fusan,  who 
politely  forwarded  his  request.  A tart  lecture  to  the  mikado’s  sub- 
ject for  his  officiousness,  and  a rebuff  to  the  Kaiser’s  envoy  were 
the  only  results  of  his  mission.  After  sauntering  about  a little, 
Herr  Yon  Brandt,  who  arrived  June  1,  1878,  left  June  2d,  and  the 
era  of  commercial  relations  between  the  Central  European  Empire' 
and  Cho-sen  was  postponed. 

During  the  year  1870,  Bishop  Ridel,  who  had  gone  back  to 
France,  returned  to  China  and  prepared  to  rejoin  his  converts. 
Having  communicated  with  them,  they  awaited  his  coming  with  anxi- 
ety, and  we  shall  hear  of  them  on  board  of  the  flag-ship  Colorado. 

Mr.  Low,  having  gathered  all  possible  information,  public  and 
private,  concerning  “the  semi-barbarous  and  hostile  people”  of 
“ the  unknown  country  ” which  he  expected  to  fail  of  entering, 
sailed  from  Shanghae,  May  8th,  arriving  at  Nagasaki,  May  12th. 
On  the  13th  he  wrote  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  Mr.  Hamilton 
Fish.  He  declared  that  “ Corea  is  more  of  a sealed  book  than 
Japan  was  before  Commodore  Perry’s  visit.”  Evidently  he  looked 
upon  the  pathway  of  the  duty  laid  upon  him  as  unusually  thorny. 
The  rose  if  plucked  at  all  would  be  held  in  smarting  fingers. 
While  granting  a faithful  servant  of  the  nation  the  virtue  of  mod- 
esty,  one  cannot  fail  to  read  in  his  letter  more  of  an  expectation  to. 
redress  wrongs  than  to  conciliate  hostility. 

1 The  first  appearance  of  the  flag  of  North  Germany  in  Corean  waters  was 
at  the  mast-head  of  the  China,  when  plunder  and  dead  men’s  bones  were  the 
objects  sought.  Its  second  appearance,  on  the  Hertha  man-of-war,  was  in  peace 
aud  honorable  quest  of  friendly  relations.  Its  third  appearance,  in  May,  1871 
— while,  or  shortly  before,  the  American  fleet  were  in  the  Han  River — was  on 
the  schooner  Chusan,  which  was  wrecked  on  one  of  the  islands  of  Sir  James 
Hall  group,  the  Chinese  crew  only,  it  appears,  being  saved.  On  June  Ctli,  a 
party  of  three  foreigners  left  Chifu  in  a junk  to  bring  back  salvage  from  the 
wreck.  These  men  were  not  heard  from  until  July  6th,  when  the  Chinese 
crew  returned  without  them.  On  the  same  day  the  British  gunboat  Ringdove, 
with  the  consul  of  Chifu,  left  for  the  Hall  group.  It  was  found  that  the  for- 
eigners had  landed  to  bring  away  the  crew  of  the  Chusan,  when  the  China- 
men, pretending  or  thinking  that  they  had  been  taken  prisoners,  put  off  to  sea 
without  them.  The  consul  found  them  in  good  health  and  spirits,  and  the 
Ringdove  brought  away  for  them  whatever  was  worth  saving  from  the  Chusan. 
Again  the  Corean  policy  of  kindness  toward  the  shipwrecked  was  illustrated. 
The  two  foreigners — a Scotchman  and  a Maltese — had  been  well  fed  and  kindly 
treated. 


406 


COREA. 


The  whole  spirit  of  the  expedition  was  not  that  reflected  in  the 
despatches  of  the  State  Department,  but  rather  that  of  the  clubs 
and  dinner-tables  of  Shanghae.  The  minister  went  to  Corea 
■with  his  mind  made  up,  and  everything  he  saw  confirmed  him  in 
his  fixed  opinion.  Of  the  admiral,  it  is  not  unjust  to  say  that  the 
warrior  predominated  over  the  peace-maker.  He  had  an  eye  to  the 
victories  of  war  more  than  those,  not  less  renowned,  of  peace. 
The  sword  was  certainly  more  congenial  to  his  nature  than  the  pen. 

The  fleet  made  rendezvous  at  Nagasaki,  in  Kiushiu— that  divi- 
sion of  Japan  whence  warlike  expeditions  to  Cho-sen  have  sailed 
from  the  days  of  Jingu  to  those  of  Taiko,  and  from  Taiko  to  Rodgers. 
This  time,  as  in  the  seventh  century,  the  landing  was  to  be  made 
not  near  the  eastern,  but  on  the  remote  western,  coast.  The  cry 
was,  “On  to  Seoul.” 

The  squadron,  consisting  of  the  flag-ship  Colorado,  the  corvettes 
Alaska  and  Benicia,  and  the  gun-boats  Monocacy  and  Palos,  sailed 
gallantly  out  of  the  harbor  on  May  16th,  and,  making  an  easy  run, 
anchored  off  Ferrieres  Islands  on  the  19th,  and,  after  a delay  of 
fogs,  Isle  Eugenie  on  the  23d. 

In  spite  of  the  formidable  appearance  of  our  navy,  the  vessels 
were  of  either  an  antiquated  type  or  of  too  heavy  a draught,  their 
timbers  too  rotten  or  not  strong  enough  for  shotted  broadsides, 
and  their  armanent  defective  in  breech-loading  firearms,  while  the 
facilities  for  landing  a force  were  inadequate.  The  Palos  and 
Monocacy  were  the  only  ships  fitted  to  go  up  the  Han  River.  The 
others  must  remain  at  the  mouth.  They  were  little  more  than 
transports.  All  the  naval  world  in  Chinese  waters  wondered  why 
so  wide-awake  and  practical  a people  as  the  Americans  should  be 
content  with  such  old-fashioned  ships,  unworthy  of  the  gallant  crews 
who  manned  them.  However,  the  fleet  and  armament  were  better 
than  the  Corean  war-junks,  or  mud-forts  armed  with  jingals.  In 
gallant  sailorly  recognition  of  his  predecessor,  yet  with  unconscious 
omen  of  like  failure,  the  brave  Rodgers  named  the  place  of  anchor- 
age Roze  Roads.  The  French  soundings  were  verified  and  the 
superb  scenery  richly  enjoyed.  All  navigators  of  the  approaches 
to  Seoul  are  alike  unanimous  in  showering  unstinting  praise  upon 
their  natural  beauty.  Here  for  the  first  time  the  natives  beheld  the 
“ flowery  ” flag  of  the  United  States. 

Next  morning  the  Palos  and  four  steam-launches  were  put  under 
the  command  of  Captain  Homer  C.  Blake,  to  examine  the  channel  be- 
yond Boisee  Island.  Four  days  were  peaceably  spent  in  this  service, 


“OUR  LITTLE  WAR  WITH  THE  HEATHEN. 


407 


a safe  return  being  made  on  the  evening  of  the  28th.  Meanwhile 
boat  parties  had  landed  and  been  treated  in  a friendly  manner  by 
the  people,  and  the  usual  curiosity  as  to  brass  buttons,  blue  cloth, 
and  glass  bottles  displayed.  The  customary  official  paper  without 
signature,  of  interrogations  as  to  who,  whence,  and  why  of  the 
comers  was  displayed,  and  the  answers,  “Americans,”  “Friendly,” 
and  “ Interview  ” re- 
turned in  faultless 
Chinese.  It  was  an- 
nounced that  the 
fleet  would  remain 
for  some  time. 

On  the  follow- 
ing day,  May  30tli, 
the  fleet  anchored 
between  the  Isles 
Boisee  and  Guerri- 
ere.  A stiff  breeze 
had  blown  away  the 
fogs  and  revealed 
the  verdure  and  the 
features  of  a land- 
scape which  struck 
all  with  admiration 
for  its  luxuriant 
beauty.  Approach- 
ing the  squadron  in 
a junk,  some  natives 
made  signs  of  friend- 
ship, and  came  on 
board  without  hesi- 
tation. They  bore 
a missive  acknowl- 
edging the  receipt 
of  the  Americans’ 
letter,  and  announcing  that  three  nobles  had  been  appointed  by 
the  regent  for  conference.  These  junk-men  were  merely  messen- 
gers, and  made  no  pretence  of  being  anything  more.  They  were 
hospitably  treated,  shown  round  the  ship,  and  dined  and  wined 
until  their  good  nature  broke  out  in  broad  grins  and  redolent  vis- 
ages. They  stood  for  their  photographs  on  deck,  and  some  fine 


" The  Entering  Wedge  of  Civilization." 


408 


COREA. 


pictures  of  them  were  obtained.  One  of  them,  after  being  loaded 
with  an  armful  of  spoil  in  the  shape  of  a dozen  or  so  of  Bass’  pale 
ale  bottles,  minus  their  corks,  and  a copy  of  Every  Saturday,  a 
Boston  illustrated  newspaper,  was  told  in  the  stereotyped  photo- 
grapher’s phrase  to  “ assume  a pleasant  expression  of  countenance, 
and  look  right  at  this  point.”  He  obeyed  so  well,  and  in  the  nick 
of  time,  that  a wreath  of  smiles  was  the  result.  “ Our  first  Corean 
visitor  ” stands  before  us  on  the  page. 

Strange  coincidence ! Strange  medley  of  the  significant  sym- 
bols of  a Christian  land ! The  first  thing  given  to  the  Corean  was 
alcohol,  beer,  and  Mine.  In  the  picture,  plainly  appearing,  are  the 
empty  pale  ale  bottles,  with  their  trade-mark,  the  red  triangle — 
“the  entering  wedge  of  civilization.”  But  held  behind  the  hands 
clasping  the  bottles  is  a copy  of  Every  Saturday,  on  the  front  page 
of  which  is  a picture  of  Charles  Sumner,  the  champion  of  human- 
ity, and  of  the  principle  that  “ nations  must  act  as  individuals,” 
with  like  moral  responsibility  ! 

Promptly  on  May  31st,  a delegation  of  eight  officers,  of  the 
third  and  fifth  rank,  came  on  board  evidently  with  intent  to  see  the 
minister  and  admiral,  to  learn  all  they  could,  and  to  gain  time. 
They  had  little  or  no  authority  and  no  credentials,  but  they  were 
sociable,  friendly,  and  in  good  humor. 

“ Mr.  Low  would  not  lower  himself,”  nor  would  Admiral 
Kodgers  see  them.  They  were  received  by  the  secretary,  Mr.  Drew. 
They  were  absolutely  non-committal  on  all  points  and  to  all  ques- 
tions asked,  and  naturally  so,  since  they  had  no  authority  whatever  1 
to  say  “yes”  or  “no  ” to  any  proposition  of  the  Americans. 

1 These  men  simply  acted  as  the  catspaws  for  the  monkey  in  the  capital  to 
pull  out  as  many  hot  chestnuts  from  the  fire  as  possible.  It  is  part  of  Asiatic 
policy  to  send  official  men  of  low  rank  and  no  authority  to  dally  and  prelude, 
and,  if  possible,  hoodwink  or  worry  out  foreigners.  Their  chief  weapons  are 
words;  their  main  strength,  cunning.  When  these  are  foiled  by  kindness,  and 
equal  patience,  firmness,  and  address,  the  Asiatics  yield,  and  send  their  men  of 
first  rank  to  confer  and  treat.  Perry  knew  this,  so  did  Townsend  Harris  in 
Japan ; so  have  successful  diplomats  known  it  in  China.  Was  it  done  in  the 
American  expedition  to  Corea  in  1871  ? Let  us  see. 

These  Coreans  had  no  right  to  say  either  “yes”  or  “ no”  to  any  proposition  of 
the  Americans.  Had  they  committed  themselves  to  anything  definite,  degra- 
dation, crushed  shin-bones,  and  perhaps  death,  might  have  been  their  fate. 
The  only  thing  for  the  Americans  to  do— who  came  to  ask  a favor  which  the 
Coreans  were  obstinately  bent  on  not  giving — was  to  feast  them,  treat  them 
with  all  kindness,  get  them  in  excellent  good  humor,  send  them  back,  and 
wait  till  accredited  envoys  of  high  rank  should  arrive.  In  the  light  of  the 


OUR  LITTLE  WAR  WITH  THE  HEATHEN. 


409 


A golden  opportunity  was  here  lost.  The  Corean  envoys  were 
informed  that  soundings  would  be  taken  in  the  river,  and  the  shores 
would  he  surveyed.  It  was  hoped  that  no  molestation  would  be 
offered,  and,  further,  that  twenty-four  hours  would  elapse  before  the 
boats  began  work. 

“ To  all  this  they  (the  Coreans)  made  no  reply  which  could  in- 
dicate dissent.  ” [Certainly  not ! They  had  no  power  to  nod  their 
heads,  or  say  either  “ yes  ” or  “ no.”  ] “ So,  believing  that  we  might 

continue  our  surveys  while  further  diplomatic  negotiations  were 
pending,  an  expedition  was  sent  to  examine  and  survey  the  Sal'e 
[Han]  River.”* 1 

The  survey  fleet  consisted  of  the  Monocacy,  Palos,  the  only 
ships  fit  for  the  purpose,  and  four  steam-launches,  each  of  the  latter 
having  a howitzer  mounted  in  the  bow.  Captain  H.  C.  Blake,  the 
commander,  was  on  board  the  Palos.  The  old  hero  understood  the 
situation  only  too  well.  As  he  started  to  obey  orders  he  re- 
marked : “ In  ten  minutes  we  shall  have  a row.” 

Exactly  at  noon  of  June  2d,  the  four  steam-launches  proceeded 


French  failure,  this  was  the  only  course  to  pursue.  There  were  even  men  of 
influence  in  the  American  fleet  who  advised  this  policy  of  patience.  As  mat- 
ter of  fact,  such  a course  was  urged  by  Captain  H.  S.  Blake. 

In  such  an  emergency,  patience,  kindness,  tact,  the  absence  of  any  burn- 
ing idea  of  “wiping  out  insults  to  the  flag,”  and  an  antiseptic  condition  toward 
fight  were  most  needed — the  higher  qualities,  of  resolution  and  self-conquest 
rather  than  valor.  Even  if  it  had  been  possible  to  inflict  ten  times  the  dam- 
age which  was  afterward  actually  inflicted,  and  win  tenfold  more  “glory,” 
the  rear-admiral  must  have  known  that  nature  and  his  “instructions”  were 
on  the  side  of  the  Coreans,  and  that  the  only  end  of  the  case  must  he  a retreat 
from  the  country.  And  the  only  possible  interpretation  the  people  could  put 
upon  the  visit  of  the  great  American  fleet  would  be  a savage  thirst  for  need- 
less vengeance,  a sordid  greed  of  gain,  and  the  justification  of  robbers  and  in- 
vaders. In  spite  of  all  the  slaughter  of  their  countrymen,  they  would  read  in 
the  withdrawal  of  their  armies,  defeat,  and  defeat  only. 

1 These  are  the  rear-admiral’s  own  words.  Here  was  the  mistake ! From 
what  may  be  easily  known  of  the  Corean  mind,  it  must  have  seemed  to  them 
that  the  advance  of  such  an  armed  force  up  the  river,  leading  to  the  capital — 
following  exactly  the  precedent  of  the  French — was  nothing  more  than  a 
treacherous  beginning  of  war  in  the  face  of  assurances  of  peace.  To  enter  into 
their  waters  seemed  to  them  an  invasion  of  their  country.  To  do  it  after  fair 
words  spoken  in  friendship  seemed  basest  treachery.  Had  a Corean  officer 
counselled  peace  in  the  face  of  the  advancing  fleet,  he  would  undoubtedly 
have  been  beheaded  at  once  as  a traitor.  There  were  men  on  the  American 
side  who  saw  this.  Some  spoke  out  loud  of  it  to  others,  but  it  was  uot  “ theirs 
to  make  reply.” 


410 


COREA. 


in  line  abreast  up  the  river,  the  Palos  and  Monocacy  following. 
The  tide  was  running  up,  and  neither  of  the  large  vessels  could  be 
kept  moving  at  a rate  slow  enough  to  allow  the  survey  work  to  be 
done  well,  so  that  this  part  of  their  work  is  of  little  value. 

Yet  everything  seemed  quiet  and  peaceful ; the  bluffs  and  high 
banks  along  the  water  were  densely  covered  with  green  woods,  with 
now  meadows,  now  a thatched-roof  village,  anon  a rice-field  in  the 
foreground.  Occasionally  people  could  be  seen  in  their  white 
dresses  along  the  banks,  but  not  a sign  of  hostility  or  war  until,  on 
reaching  the  lower  end  of  Ivang-wa  Island,  a line  of  forts  and  flut- 
tering flags  suddenly  become  visible.  In  a few  minutes  more  long 
lines  of  white-garbed  soldiery  were  seen,  and  through  a glass  an 
interpreter  read  on  one  of  the  yellow  flags  the  Chinese  characters 
meaning  “ General  Commanding.”  In  the  embrasures  were  a few 
pieces  of  artillery  of  32-pound  calibre,  and  some  smaller  pieces 
lashed  together  by  fives,  or  nailed  to  logs  in  a row.  On  the  oppo- 
site point  of  the  river  was  a line  of  smaller  earthworks,  freshly 
thrown  up,  armed  only  with  jingals.  Around  the  bend  in  the 
river  was  “a  whirlpool  as  bad  as  Hell  Gate,”  full  of  eddies  and 
ledges,  with  the  channel  only  three  hundred  feet  wide.  The  fort 
(Du  Conde)  was  situated  right  on  this  elbow.  Hundreds  of  mats 
and  screens  were  ranged  within  and  on  the  works,  masking  the 
loaded  guns.  As  the  boats  passed  nearer,  glimpses  into  the  fort 
became  possible,  by  which  it  was  seen  that  the  cannon  “ lay  nearly 
as  thick  together  as  gun  to  gun  and  gun  behind  gun  on  the  floor  of 
an  arsenal.”  (See  map,  page  415.) 

For  a moment  the  silence  was  ominous— oppressive.  The  hearts 
of  the  men  beat  violently,  their  teeth  were  set,  and  calm  defiance 
waited  in  the  face  of  certain  death.  The  rapid  current  bore  them 
on  right  into  the  face  of  the  frowning  muzzles.  It  seemed  impos- 
sible to  escape.  Were  the  Coreans  going  to  fire  ? If  so,  why  not 
now  ? Immediately  ? Now  is  their  opportunity.  The  vessels  are 
abreast  the  forts. 

The  Corean  commander  was  one  moment  too  late.  From  the 
parapet  under  the  great  flag  a signal  gun  was  fired.  In  an  in- 
stant mats  and  screens  were  alive  with  the  red  fire  of  eighty  pieces 
of  artillery.  Then  a hail  of  shot  from  all  the  cannon,  guns,  and 
jingals  rained  around  the  boats.  Forts,  batteries,  and  walls  were 
hidden  for  a moment  in  smoke.  The  water  was  rasped  and  tom  as 
though  a hailstorm  was  passing  over  it.  Many  of  the  men  in  the 
boats  were  wet  to  the  skin  by  the  splashing  of  the  water  over  them. 


“OUR  LITTLE  WAR  WITH  THE  HEATHEN. 


411 


Old  veterans  of  the  civil  war  had  never  seen  so  much  fire,  lead,  iron, 
and  smoke  of  bad  powder  concentrated  in  such  small  space  and 
time.  “ Old  Blake,”  who  had  had  two  ships  shot  under  him  by  the 
Confederates,  declared  he  could  remember  nothing  so  sharp  as  this. 

The  fire  was  promptly  returned  by  the  steam-launch  howitzers 
The  Palos  and  Monocacy,  which  had  forged  ahead,  turned  back, 
and  “ Old  Blake  came  round  the  point  a- flying,  and  let  drive  all 
the  guns  of  the  Palos  at  them.  The  consequence  was  that  they 
kicked  so  hard  as  to  tear  the  bolts  out  of  the  side  of  the  ship  and 
render  the  bulwarks  useless  during  the  remainder  of  the  fight.” 
The  Monocacy  also  anchored  near  the  point,  and  sent  her  ten-inch 
shells  into  the  fort.  During  her  movements,  she  struck  a rock  and 
began  to  leak  badly.  After  hammering  at  the  forts  until  every- 
thing in  them  was  silenced,  the  squadron  returned  down  the  river, 
sending  their  explosive  compliments  into  the  forts  and  redoubts  as 
they  passed.  All  were  quiet  and  deserted,  however,  but  the  com- 
mander’s flag  was  still  flying  unharmed  and  neglected.  Strange 
to  say,  out  of  the  entire  fleet  only  one  of  our  men  was  wounded 
and  none  was  killed  ; nor  did  any  of  the  ships  or  boats  receive  any 
damage  from  the  batteries.  Two  hundred  guns  had  been  fired  on 
the  Corean  side.  The  signal  coming  too  late,  the  immovability  of 
their  rude  guns,  the  badness  of  the  powder,  and  the  poor  aim  of 
the  unskilled  gunners,  were  the  causes  of  such  an  incredibly  small 
damage.  It  was  like  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter  in  1861,  or 
like  those  battles  which  statistics  reveal  to  us,  in  which  it  requires 
a ton  of  lead  to  kill  a man. 

However,  it  was  determined  by  the  chief  representatives  of  the 
civil  and  naval  powers  to  resent  the  insult  offered  to  our  “ flag”  in 
the  “unprovoked”  attack  on  our  vessels,  “should  no  apology  or 
satisfactory  explanation  be  offered  for  the  hostile  action  of  the 
Corean  government.” 

Ten  days  were  now  allowed  to  pass  before  further  action  was 
taken.  They  were  ten  days  of  inaction,  except  preparation  for 
further  fight  and  some  correspondence  with  the  local  magistrate. 
What  a pity  these  ten  days  had  not  been  spent  before,  and  not 
after,  June  2d  ! Some  civilians,  not  to  say  Christians,  might  also 
be  of  the  opinion  that  ample  revenge  had  already  been  taken, 
enough  blood  spilled,  the  “honor”  of  the  flag  fully  “vindicated,” 
a delicate  diplomatic  mission  of  “peace”  spoiled  beyond  further 
damage,  and  that  further  vengeance  was  folly,  and  more  blood 
spilled,  murder.  But  not  so  thought  the  powers  that  be. 


412 


COREA. 


The  chastising  expedition  consisted  of  the  Monocacy,  Palos, 
four  steam-launches,  and  twenty  boats,  conveying  a landing  force 
of  six  hundred  and  fifty-one  men,  of  whom  one  hundred  and  five 
were  marines.  The  Benicia,  Alaska,  and  Colorado  remained  at  an 
chor.  The  total  force  detailed  for  the  work  of  punishing  the  Co- 
reans  was  seven  hundred  and  fifty-nine  men.  These  were  arranged 
in  ten  companies  of  infantry,  with  seven  pieces  of  artillery.  The 
Monocacy  had,  in  addition  to  her  regular  armament,  two  of  the 
Colorado’s  nine-inch  guns.  Captain  Homer  C.  Blake,  who  was  put 
in  charge  of  the  expedition,  remained  on  the  Palos. 

The  squadron  proceeded  up  the  river  at  10  o’clock,  on  the 
morning  of  the  10th  of  June,  two  steam-launches  moving  in  ad- 
vance of  the  Monocacy.  The  boats  were  in  tow  of  the  Palos, 
which  moved  at  10.30.  The  day  was  bright,  clear,  and  warm.  A 
short  distance  above  the  isle  Primauguet  a junk  was  seen  approach- 
ing, the  Coreans  waving  a white  flag  and  holding  a letter  from 
one  of  the  ministers  of  the  court.  One  of  the  steam-launches  met 
the  junk,  and  the  letter  was  received.  It  was  translated  by  Mr. 
Drew,  but  as  it  contained  nothing  which,  in  the  American  eyes, 
seemed  like  an  apology,  the  squadron  moved  on.  At  1 o’clock  the 
Monocacy  arrived  within  range  of  the  first  fort  and  opened  with 
her  guns,  which  partly  demolished  the  walls  and  emptied  it  in  a 
few  seconds. 

The  landing  party,  after  a two  minutes’  pull  at  the  oars,  reached 
the  shore,  and  disembarked  about  eight  hundred  yards  below  the 
fort.  The  landing-place  was  a mud-flat,  in  which  the  men  sunk  to 
their  knees  in  the  tough  slime,  losing  gaiters,  shoes,  and  even  tear- 
ing off  the  legs  of  their  trousers  in  their  efforts  to  advance.  The 
howitzers  sank  to  their  axles  in  the  heavy  ooze. 

Once  on  firm  land,  the  infantry  formed,  the  marines  deploying 
as  skirmishers.  Unarmed  refugees  from  the  villages  were  not 
harmed,  and  the  first  fort  was  quietly  entered.  The  work  of  de- 
molition was  begun  by  firing  every  tiling  combustible  and  rolling 
the  guns  into  the  river.  Day  being  far  spent  when  this  was 
finished,  the  whole  force  went  into  camp  and  bivouacked,  taking 
every  precaution  against  surprise.  Four  companies  of  infantry 
were  first  detailed  to  drag  the  howitzers  out  of  the  mud,  a task 
which  resembled  the  wrenching  of  an  armature  off  a twenty -horse 
power  magnet. 

Our  men  lay  down  to  sleep  under  the  stars.  All  was  quiet 
that  Saturday  night,  except  the  chatting  round  the  camp-fires  and 


•‘OUR  LITTLE  WAR  WITH  THE  HEATHEN. 


413 


the  croaking  of  the  Corean  frogs,  as  the  men  cleaned  themselves 
and  prepared  for  their  Sunday  work.  Toward  midnight  a body  of 
white-coats  approached,  set  up  a tremendous  howling,  and  began 
a dropping  fire  on  our  main  pickets.  As  they  moved  about  in  the 
darkness,  they  looked  like  ghosts.  When  the  long  roll  was  sounded, 
our  men  sprang  to  their  arms  and  fell  in  like  old  veterans.  A 
few  shells  were  scattered  among  the  ghostly  howlers,  and  all  was 
quiet  again.  The  marines  occupied  a strong  position  half  a mile 
from  the  main  body,  a rice-field  dividing  them,  with  only  a narrow 
foot-path  in  the  centre.  They  slept  with  their  arms  at  their  side, 
and,  divided  into  three  reliefs,  kept  watch. 

While  at  the  anchorage  off  Boisee  Island  that  evening,  twelve 
native  Christians,  approaching  noiselessly  in  the  dark,  made  signs 
of  a desire  to  communicate.  They  had  come  in  a junk  from  some 
point  on  the  coast  to  inquire  after  their  pastor,  Ridel,  and  two  other 
French  missionaries  whom  they  expected.  To  their  great  distress, 
the  Americans  could  give  them  no  information.  Fearing  lest  the 
government  might  know,  from  the  build  of  their  craft,  from  what 
part  of  the  country  they  came,  and  punish  them  for  communicating 
with  the  foreigners,  they  burned  their  boat  and  returned  home. 

Next  day  was  Sunday.  The  reveille  was  sounded  in  the  camps, 
breakfast  eaten,  and  blankets  rolled  up.  Company  C and  the  pion- 
eers were  sent  into  the  fort  to  complete  its  destruction,  by  burning 
up  the  rice,  dried  fish,  and  huts  still  standing. 

The  march  began  at  7 a.m.  The  sun  rolled  up  in  a cloudless 
sky  and  the  weather  was  very  warm.  It  was  a rough  road,  if,  in- 
deed, it  could  be  called  such,  being  but  a bridle-path  over  hills  and 
valleys,  and  through  rice  fields.  Whole  companies  were  required  to 
drag  the  howitzers  up  the  hills  and  through  the  narrow  defiles. 
The  marines  led  the  advance.  The  next  line  of  fortifications,  the 
“ middle  fort,”  was  soon  entered.  The  guns  were  found  loaded,  as 
they  had  been  deserted  as  soon  as  the  fort  was  made  a target  by 
the  Monocacy,  every  one  of  whose  shots  told.  The  work  of  dis- 
mantling was  here  thoroughly  done.  The  sixty  brass  pieces  of  ar- 
tillery, all  of  them  insignificant  breech-loaders  of  two-inch  bore, 
were  tumbled  into  the  river,  and  the  fort  appropriately  named 
“ Fort  Monocacy.” 

The  difficult  march  was  resumed  under  a blazing  sun  and  in 
steaming  heat.  A succession  of  steep  hills  lay  before  them.  Sap- 
pers and  miners,  with  picks,  shovels,  and  axes,  went  ahead  levelling 
and  widening  the  road,  cutting  bushes  and  filling  hollows.  The 


414 


COREA. 


guns  had  to  be  hauled  up  and  lowered  down  the  steep  places  by 
means  of  ropes.  Large  masses  of  white  coats  and  black  heads  hov- 
ered on  their  flanks,  evidently  purposing  to  get  in  the  rear.  Their 
numbers  were  increasing.  The  danger  was  imminent.  The  fort 
must  be  taken  soon  or  never. 

A detachment  of  five  howitzers  and  three  companies  were  de- 
tailed to  guard  the  flanks  and  rear  under  Lieutenant-Commander 
Wheeler.  The  main  body  then  moved  forward  to  storm  the  fort 
(citadel).  This  move  of  our  forces  checkmated  the  enemy  and 
made  victory  sure,  redeeming  a critical  moment  and  turning  danger 
into  safety. 

Hardly  were  the  guns  in  position,  when  the  Coreans,  massing 
their  forces,  charged  the  hill  in  the  very  teeth  of  the  howitzers’  fire. 
Our  men  calmly  took  sure  aim,  and  by  steadily  firing  at  long  range, 
so  shattered  the  ranks  of  the  attacking  force  that  they  broke  and 
fled,  leaving  a clear  field.  The  fort  was  now  doomed.  The  splendid 
pi'actice  of  our  howitzers  effectually  prevented  any  large  body  of 
the  enemy  from  getting  into  action,  and  made  certain  the  capture 
of  the  cidadel. 

Meanwhile  the  Monocacy,  moving  up  the  river  and  abreast  of 
the  land  force,  poured  a steady  fire  of  shell  through  the  walls  and 
into  the  fort,  while  the  howitzers  of  the  rear-guard  on  the  hill 
behind,  reversing  their  muzzles,  fired  upon  the  garrison  over  the 
heads  of  our  men  in  the  ravine.  The  infantry  and  marines  hav- 
ing rested  awhile  after  their  forced  march,  during  which  several 
had  been  overcome  by  heat  and  sunstroke,  now  formed  for  a 
charge. 

The  citadel  to  be  assaulted  was  the  key  to  the  whole  line  of 
fortifications.  It  crowned  the  apex  of  a conical  hill  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  high,  measuring  from  the  bottom  of  the  ravine.  It 
mounted,  with  the  redoubt  below,  one  hundred  and  forty-three 
guns.  The  sides  of  the  hill  were  very  steep,  the  walls  of  the  fort 
joining  it  almost  without  a break.  Up  this  steep  incline  our  men 
were  to  rush  in  the  face  of  the  garrison’s  fire.  Could  the  white- 
coats depress  the  jingals  at  a sufficiently  low  angle,  they  must  an- 
nihilate the  blue-jackets.  Should  our  men  reach  the  walls,  they 
could  easily  enter  through  the  breaches  made  by  the  Monocacy’s 
shells.  As  usual,  slowness,  and  the  national  habit  of  being  behind 
time,  saved  our  men  and  lost  the  day  for  Corea. 

A terrible  reception  awaited  the  Americans.  Every  man  inside 
was  bound  to  die  at  his  post,  for  this  fort  being  the  key  to  all  the 


“OUR  LITTLE  WAR  WITH  THE  HEATHEN. 


415 


others,  was  held  by  the  tiger-hunters,  who,  if  they  flinched  before 
the  enemy,  were  to  be  put  to  death  by  their  own  people. 


All  being  ready,  our  men  rose  up  with  a yell  and  rushed  for 
the  redoubt,  officers  in  front.  A storm  of  jingal  balls  rained  over 


416 


COREA. 


their  heads,  but  their  dash  up  the  hill  was  so  rapid  that  the  gar- 
rison could  not  depress  their  pieces  or  load  fast  enough.  Their 
powder  burned  too  slowly  to  hurt  the  swift  Yankees.  Goaded  to 
despair  the  tiger-hunters  “chanted  their  war-dirge  in  a blood- 
chilling  cadence  which  nothing  can  duplicate.”  They  mounted 
the  parapet,  fighting  with  furious  courage.  They  cast  stones  at 
our-  men.  They  met  them  with  spear  and  sword.  With  hands 
emptied  of  weapons,  they  picked  up  dust  and  threw  in  the  invaders’ 
eyes  to  blind  them.  Expecting  no  quarter  and  no  relief,  they  con- 
tested the  ground  inch  by  inch  and  fought  only  to  die.  Scores 
were  shot  and  tumbled  into  the  river.  Most  of  the  wounded  were 
drowned,  and  some  cut  their  own  throats  as  they  rushed  into  the 
water. 

Lieutenant  McKee  was  the  first  to  mount  the  parapet  and  leap 
inside  the  fort.  For  a moment,  and  only  a moment,  he  stood  alone 
fighting  against  overwhelming  odds.  A bullet  struck  him  in  the 
groin,  a Corean  brave  rushed  forward,  and,  with  a terrible  lunge, 
thrust  him  in  the  thigh,  and  then  turned  upon  Lieutenant-Com- 
mander Schley,  who  had  leaped  over  the  parapet.  The  spear  passed 
harmlessly  between  the  arm  and  body  of  the  American  as  a carbine 
bullet  laid  the  Corean  dead. 

The  fort  was  now  full  of  officers  and  men,  and  a hand  to  hand 
fight  between  the  blue  and  white  began  to  strew  the  ground  with 
corpses.  Corean  sword  crossed  Yankee  cutlass,  and  clubbed  car- 
bine brained  the  native  whose  spear  it  dashed  aside.  The  garrison 
fought  to  the  last  man.  Within  the  walls  those  shot  and  bayoneted 
numbered  nearly  one  hundred.  Not  one  unwounded  prisoner  was 
taken.  The  huge  yellow  cotton  flag,  which  floated  from  a very 
short  staff  in  the  centre,  was  hauled  down  by  Captain  McLane  Til- 
ton and  two  marines.  Meanwhile  a desperate  fight  went  on  out- 
side the  fort.  During  the  charge,  some  of  the  Coreans  retreated 
from  the  fort,  a movement  which  caught  the  eye  of  Master  McLean. 
Hastily  collecting  a party  of  his  men,  he  moved  to  the  left  on  the 
double  quick  to  cut  off  the  fugitives.  He  was  just  in  time.  The 
fugitives,  forty  or  fifty  in  all,  after  firing,  attempted  to  rush  past 
him.  They  were  driven  back  in  diminished  numbers.  Hemmed 
in  between  the  captured  fort  and  their  enemy,  McLean  charged 
them  with  his  handful  of  men.  Hiding  behind  some  rocks,  they 
fought  with  desperation  until  they  were  all  killed,  only  two  or  three 
being  made  prisoners.  Another  party  attempting  to  escape  were 
nearly  annihilated  by  Cassel’s  battery,  which  sent  canister  into  their 


“OUR  LITTLE  WAR  WITH  THE  HEATHEN. 


417 


flying  backs,  mowing  them  down  in  swaths.  Moving  at  full  speed, 
many  were  shot  like  rabbits,  falling  heels  over  head.  At  the  same 
time  Captain  Tilton  passed  to  the  right  of  the  fort  and  caught 
another  party  retreating  along  the  crest  of  the  hill  joining  the  two 
forts,  and,  with  a steady  carbine  fire,  thinned  their  numbers.  At 
12.45  the  stars  and  stripes  floated  over  all  the  forts.  A photographer 
came  ashore  and  on  his  camera  fixed  the  horrible  picture  of  blood. 

The  scene  after  the  battle  smoke  cleared  away,  and  our  men  sat 
down  to  rest,  was  of  a kind  to  thoroughly  satisfy  those  “ who  look 
on  war  as  a pastime.”  It  was  one  from  which  humanity  loves  to 
avert  her  gaze.  Two  hundred  and  forty-three  corpses  in  their 
white  garments  lay  in  and  around  the  citadel.  Many  of  them  were 
clothed  in  thick  cotton  armor,  wadded  to  nine  thicknesses,  which 
now  smouldered  away.  A sickening  stench  of  roasted  flesh  filled 
the  air,  which,  during  the  day  and  night,  became  intolerable.  Some 
of  the  wounded,  fearing  their  captors  worse  than  their  torture, 
slowly  burned  to  death  ; choosing  rather  to  suffer  living  cremation 
than  to  save  their  lives  as  captives.  Our  men,  as  they  dragged  the 
smoking  corpses  into  the  burial  trench,  found  one  man  who  could 
endure  the  torture  no  longer.  Making  signs  of  life,  he  was  soon 
stripped  of  his  clothes,  but  died  soon  after  of  his  -wounds  and 
burns.  Only  twenty  prisoners,  all  wounded,  were  taken  alive. 
At  least  a hundred  coi-pses  floated  or  sunk  in  the  river,  which  ran 
here  and  there  in  crimson  streaks.  At  this  one  place  probably  as 
many  as  three  hundred  and  fifty  Corean  patriots  gave  up  their  lives 
for  their  country. 

On  the  American  side,  the  gallant  McKee,  wTho  fell  as  his  father 
fell  in  Mexico,  at  the  head  of  his  men,  the  first  inside  the  stormed 
works,  was  mortally  wounded,  and  died  soon  after.  One  lands- 
man of  the  Colorado  and  one  marine  of  the  Benicia  were  killed. 
Five  men  were  severely,  and  five  slightly,  wounded. 

The  other  two  forts  below  the  citadel  being  open  to  the  rear 
from  the  main  work  were  easily  entered,  no  regular  resistance 
being  offered.  The  results  of  the  forty-eight  hours  on  shore,  eigh- 
teen of  which  were  spent  in  the  field,  were  the  capture  of  five  forts 
— probably  the  strongest  in  the  kingdom — fifty  flags,  four  hundred 
and  eighty-one  pieces  of  artillery,  chiefly  jingals,  and  a large  num- 
ber of  matchlocks.  Of  the  artillery  eleven  pieces  were  32,-  fourteen 
were  24,-  two  were  20,-  and  the  remaining  four  hundred  and  fifty- 
four  were  2-  and  4-pounders.  The  work  of  destruction  was  car- 
ried on  and  made  as  thorough  as  fire,  axe,  and  shovel  could  make 
27 


415 


COREJL 


:i-  A victory  was  won.  of  which  the  American  navy  may  feel 

rrood.  Zeal  patience-.  liscipline.  and  bravery  characterized  men 
and  omcers  in  all  the  movement 

Tne  woandei  were  moved  to  the  Monocacy.  The  forts  were 
o:  pel  all  Sun-day  night,  and  early  on  Monday  morning  the 
wi>:le  force  w*s  re-embarked  in  perfect  order,  in  spite  of  the  furi- 
ous hie.  rauc  twenty  fee;.  The  feet  moved  down  the  stream 
with  the  cap  tuned  col : rs  at  the  mast-heads  and  towing  the  boats 
laden,  w-.th  the  trophies  of  victory.  Reaching  the  anchorage 
a:  half  pact  ten  o'clock,  they  were  greeted  with  such  ringing 
:heers  of  their  comrades  left  behind  as  made  the  woodlands  echo 
again. 

Later  in  the  lay.  Dennis  Henirin  (or  llanrahan  and  Seth  Allen, 
the  two  men  slam  m the  drht.  were  buried  on  Boisee  Island,  and 
the  hrst  American  graves  rose  on  Corean  soil  At  5.45  p.il  McKee 
breathed  his  last. 

Yet  the  c*iis  of  battle  were  dreadful — three  graves  against 
heap®  upon  heaps  of  unburied  s'. air..  Well  might  the  pagan  ask : 
••  What  did  Heaven  mean  by  i;  ? ” 

Tne  native  woundei  were  kindly  cared  for,  and  their  broken 
lores  mended,  by  the  fee:  surgeon.  Dr.  Mayo.  Admiral  Rodgers, 
in  a letter  to  the  native  authorities,  offered  to  return  his  prisoners. 
Tne  reply  was  in  substance  : ••  Do  as  you  please  with  them."’  The 
prisoners  were  therefore  set  ashore  and  allowed  to  dispose  of 
themselves. 

Aimiral  Rodgers  haring  obeyed  to  the  farthest  limit  the  orders 
given  'rin  and  ah  hope  of  making  a treaty  being  over,  two  of  the 
ships,  withal  needing  to  reft,  the  feet  sailed  from  the  anchorage  off 
L-le  Bus-  e the  lay  before  the  fourth  of  -July,  nrriring  in  Chifu  on 
the  morning  of  July  5th.  after  thirty-five  days’  stay  in  Corean 
witers.  He  arrived  in  time  to  hear  of  the  Tientsin  massacre,  which 
had  taken  place  June  finh.  ’Our  little  war  with  the  heathen,”  as 
the  JVhr  Tort  Herald  styled  it.  attracted  slight  notice  in  the  United 
" tales.  A few  columns  of  news  and  comment  from  the  metropoli- 
• an  press,  a page  or  two  of  woodcuts  in  an  illustrated  newspaper, 
•he  ringing  of  a chime  of  jests  on  going  up  Salt  River  Sal -’-e  i.  and 


In  tie  :h*pe!  of  the  Xaval  Academy,  az  Annapolis,  a tasteful  mural  tablet. 
Erected  by  hi  brother  ofteen  of  the  Asiatic  squadron,”  with  the  naval  em- 
blems— sword,  belt,  anchor,  and  riory-wreaih — in  medal 'ion,  and  inscription 
on  a shield  beneath,  keeps  pees  th^  memory  ot  an  tmaelfisL  patriot  and  a 

it- 1 eftetr. 


“OUR  LITTLE  WAR  WITH  THE  HEATHEN. 


419 


the  usual  transmission  of  official  documents,  summed  up  the  tran- 
sient impression  on  the  American  public. 

In  China  the  expedition  was  looked  upon  as  a failure  and  a de- 
feat. The  popular  Corean  idea  was,  that  the  Americans  had  come 
to  avenge  the  death  of  pirates  and  robbers,  and,  after  several  bat- 
tles, had  been  so  surely  defeated  that  they  dare  not  attempt  the 
task  of  chastisement  again.  To  the  Tai-wen  Kun  the  whole  matter 
was  cause  for  personal  glorification.  The  tiger-hunters  and  the  con- 
servative party  at  court  believed  that  they  had  successfully  defied 
both  France  and  America,  and  driven  off  their  forces  with  loss. 
"When  a Scotch  missionary  in  Shing-king  reasoned  with  a Corean 
concerning  the  power  of  foreigners  and  their  superiority  in  war, 
the  listener’s  reply,  delivered  with  angry  toss  of  the  head  and  a 
snap  of  the  fingers,  was : “ What  care  we  for  your  foreign  inven- 
tions? Even  our  boys  laugh  at  all  your  weapons.” 


CHAPTER  XLTH. 


THE  PORTS  OPENED  TO  JAPANESE  COMMERCE. 

The  walls  of  Corean  isolation,  so  long  intact,  had  been  sapped 
by  the  entrance  of  Christianity  and  the  French  missionaries,  and 
now  began  to  crumble.  With  the  Russians  on  the  north,  and  the 
sea  no  longer  a barrier,  the  Japanese  began  to  press  upon  the  east, 
while  China  broke  through  and  abolished  the  neutrality  of  the 
western  border.  The  fires  of  civilization  began  to  smoke  out  the 
hermit. 

The  revolutions  of  1868  in  Japan,  culminating  after  a century 
of  interior  preparation,  abolished  the  dual  system  and  feudalism, 
and  restored  the  mikado  to  supreme  power.  The  capital  was  re- 
moved to  Tokio,  and  the  office  of  Foreign  Affairs — a sub-bureau — 
was  raised  to  a department  of  the  Imperial  administration.  One 
of  the  first  things  attended  to  was  to  invite  the  Corean  govern- 
ment to  resume  ancient  friendship  and  vassalage. 

This  summons,  coming  from  a source  unrecognized  for  eight 
centuries,  and  to  a regent  swollen  with  pride  at  his  victory  over  the 
French  and  his  success  in  extirpating  the  Christian  religion,  and 
irritated  at  Japan  for  adopting  western  principles  of  progress 
and  cutting  free  from  Chinese  influence  and  tradition,  was  spumed 
with  defiance.  An  insolent  and  even  scurrilous  letter  was  returned 
to  the  mikado’s  government,  which  stung  to  rage  the  military 
classes  of  Japan,  who  began  to  form  a “ war-party,”  which  was 
headed  by  Saigo  of  Satsuma.  "Waiting  only  for  the  return  of  the 
embassy  from  Europe,  and  for  the  word  to  take  up  the  gage  of  bat- 
tle, they  nourished  their  wrath  to  keep  it  warm. 

It  was  not  so  to  be.  New  factors  had  entered  the  Corean 
problem  since  Taiko’s  time.  European  states  were  now  concerned 
in  Asiatic  politics.  Russia  was  too  near,  China  too  hostile,  and 
Japan  too  poor  ; she  was  even  then  paying  ten  per  cent,  interest  to 
London  bankers  on  the  Shimonoseki  Indemnity  loan.  Financial 
ruin,  and  a collision  with  China  might  result,  if  war  were  declared. 


THE  PORTS  OPENED  TO  JAPANESE  COMMERCE.  421 


In  October,  1873,  the  cabinet  vetoed  the  scheme,  and  Saigo,  the 
leader  of  the  war  party,  resigned  and  returned  to  Satsuma,  to 
nourish  schemes  for  the  overthrow  of  the  ministry  and  the  humilia- 
tion of  Corea.  “The  eagle,  even  though  starving,  refuses  to  eat 
grain ; ” nor  would  anything  less  than  Corean  blood  satisfy  the 
Japanese  veterans. 

In  1873,  the  young  king  of  Corea  attained  his  majority.  His 
father,  Tai-wen  Kun,  by  the  act  of  the  king  backed  by  Queen  Cho, 
was  relieved  of  office,  and  his  bloody  and  cruel  lease  of  power  came 
to  an  end.  The  young  sovereign  proved  himself  a man  of  mental 
vigor  and  independent  judgment,  not  merely  trusting  to  his  minis- 
ters, but  opening  important  documents  in  person.  He  has  been 
ably  seconded  by  his  wife  Min,  through  whose  influence  Tai-wen 
Kun  was  shorn  of  influence,  nobles  of  progressive  spirit  were  re- 
instated to  office,  and  friendship  with  Japan  encouraged.  In  this 
year,  1873,  an  heir  to  the  throne  was  born  of  the  queen  ; another 
royal  child,  the  offspring  of  a concubine,  having  been  born  in 
1869. 

The  neutral  belt  of  land  long  inhabited  by  deer  and  tiger,  or 
traversed  by  occasional  parties  of  ginseng-hunters,  had  within  the 
last  few  decades  been  overspread  with  squatters,  and  infested  by 
Manchiu  brigands  and  Corean  outlaws.  The  depredations  of  these 
border  ruffians  both  across  the  Yalu,  and  on  the  Chinese  settle- 
ments— like  the  raids  of  the  wild  Indians  on  our  Texas  frontier — 
had  become  intolerable  to  both  countries.  In  1875,  Li  Hung 
Chang,  sending  a force  of  picked  Chinese  troops,  supported  by  a 
gunboat  on  the  Yalu,  broke  up  the  nest  of  robbers,  and  imbibed  a 
taste  both  for  Corean  politics  and  for  rectifying  the  frontiers  of 
Shing-king.  He  proceeded  at  once  to  make  said  frontier  “ scientific  ” 
by  allowing  the  surveyor  and  plowman  to  enter  the  no  longer  de- 
batable land.  In  1877,  the  governor  of  Shing-king  proposing,  the 
Peking  Government  shifted  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  empire 
twenty  leagues  nearer  the  rising  sun,  on  the  plea  that  “ the  width 
of  the  tract  left  uncultivated  was  of  less  moment  than  the  efficiency 
of  border  regulations.”  By  this  act  the  borders  of  China  and 
Corea  touched,  and  were  written  in  Yalu  water.  The  last  vestige 
of  insulation  was  removed,  and  the  shocks  of  change  now  became 
more  frequent  and  alarming.  By  contact  with  the  living  world, 
comatose  Corea  was  to  be  galvanized  into  new  life. 

Nevertheless  the  hostile  spirit  of  the  official  classes,  who  tyran- 
nize the  little  country,  was  shown  in  the  refusal  to  receive  envoys  of 


422 


COREA. 


the  mikado  because  they  were  dressed  in  European  clothes,  in  pettj 
regulations  highly  irritating  to  the  Japanese  at  Fusan,  and  by  the 
overt  act  of  violence  which  we  shall  now  narrate. 

Since  1868  the  Japanese  navy,  modelled  after  the  British,  and 
consisting  of  American  and  European  iron-clads  and  war  vessels, 
has  been  manned  by  crews  uniformed  in  foreign  style.  On  Septem- 
ber 19, 1875,  some  sailors  of  the  Unyo  Kuan,  which  had  been  cruis- 
ing off  the  mouth  of  the  Han  River,  landing  near  Kang-wa  for  water, 
were  fired  on  by  Corean  soldiers,  under  the  idea  that  they  -were 
Americans  or  Frenchmen.  On  the  21st  the  Japanese,  numbering 
thirty-six  men,  and  armed  with  breech  loaders,  stormed  the  fort. 
Most  of  the  garrison  were  shot  or  drowned,  the  fort  dismantled, 
and  the  spoil  carried  to  the  ships.  Occupying  the  works  two  days, 
the  Japanese  returned  to  Nagasaki  on  the  23d. 

The  news  of  “the  Kokwa  [Kang-wa]  affair”  brought  the  wav- 
ering minds  of  both  the  peace  and  the  war  party  of  Japan  to  a 
decision.  Ariuori  Mori  was  despatched  to  Peking  to  find  out  the 
exact  relation  of  China  to  Corea,  and  secure  her  neutrality.  Kuroda 
Iviyotaku  was  sent  with  a fleet  to  the  Han  River,  to  make,  if  pos- 
sible, a treaty  of  friendship  and  open  ports  of  trade.  By  the  rival 
parties,  the  one  was  regarded  as  the  bearer  of  the  olive  branch,  the 
other  of  arrows  and  lightning.  With  Kuroda  went  Inouye  Bunda 
of  the  State  Department,  and  Ivin  Rinshio,  the  Corean  liberal. 

General  Kuroda  sailed  January  6,  1876,  amid  salvos  of  the  artil- 
lery of  newspaper  criticism  predicting  failure,  wfith  two  men-of-war, 
three  transports,  and  three  companies  of  marines,  or  less  than 
eight  hundred  men  in  all,  and  touching  at  Fusan,  anchored  within 
sight  of  Seoul,  February  6th.  About  the  same  time,  a courier 
from  Peking  arrived  in  the  capital,  bearing  the  Imperial  recom- 
mendation that  a treaty  be  made  with  the  Japanese.  The  temper 
of  the  young  king  had  been  manifested  long  before  this  by  his  re- 
buking the  district  magistrate  of  Kang-wa  for  allowing  soldiers  to 
fire  on  peaceably  disposed  people,  and  ordering  the  offender  to 
degradation  and  exile.  Arinori  Mori,  in  Peking,  had  received  the 
written  disclaimer  of  China’s  responsibility  over  “ the  outpost 
state,”  by  which  stroke  of  policy  the  Middle  Kingdom  freed  her- 
self from  all  possible  claims  of  indemnity  from  France,  the  United 
States,  and  Japan.  The  way  for  a treaty  was  now  smoothed,  and 
the  new  difficulties  were  merely  questions  of  form.  Nevertheless, 
while  Kuroda  was  unheard  from,  the  Japanese  war  preparations 
went  vigorously  on. 


THE  PORTS  OPENED  TO  JAPANESE  COMMERCE. 


423 


Kuroda,  making  Commodore  Perry's  tactics  his  own,  disposed 
his  fleet  in  the  most  imposing  array,  made  his  transports  look  like 
men-of-war,  by  painting  port-holes  on  them,  kept  up  an  incredible 
amount  of  fuss,  movement,  and  bustle,  and  on  the  10th  landed  a 
dazzling  array  of  marines,  sailors,  and  officers  in  full  uniform,  who 
paraded  two  miles  to  the  treaty-house,  on  Kang-wa  Island,  where 
two  high  commissioners  from  Seoul,  Ji  Shinken  and  In  Jisho,  aged 
respectively  sixty-five  and  fifty,  awaited  him. 

One  day  was  devoted  to  ceremony,  and  three  to  negotiation.  A 
written  apology  for  the  Kang-wa  affair  was  offered  by  the  Coreans, 
and  the  details  of  the  treaty  settled,  the  chief  difficulties  being  the 
titles  to  be  used. 1 Ten  days  for  consultation  at  the  capital  were 
then  asked  for  and  granted,  at  the  end  of  which  time,  the  two  com- 
missioners returned,  declaring  the  impossibility  of  obtaining  the 
royal  signature.  The  Japanese  at  once  embarked  on  their  ships 
in  disgust.  They  returned  only  after  satisfactory  assurances  ; and 
on  February  27th  the  treaty,  in  which  Cho-sen  was  recognized  as 
an  independent  nation,  was  signed  and  attested.  The  Japanese 
then  made  presents,  mostly  of  western  manufacture,  and  after  be- 
ing feasted,  returned  March  1st.  Mr.  Inouye  Bunda  then  pro- 
ceeded to  Europe,  visiting,  on  his  way,  the  Centennial  Exposition 
at  Philadelphia,  at  which  also,  it  is  said,  were  one  or  more  Corean 
visitors. 

The  first  Corean  Embassy,  which  since  the  twelfth  century  had 
been  accredited  to  the  mikado’s  court,  sailed  in  May,  1876,  from  Fu- 
san  in  a Japanese  steamer,  landing  at  Yokohama  May  29th,  at  8 a.  si. 
Two  Neptune-like  braves  with  the  symbols  of  power — huge  iron 

1 The  Japanese  refused  to  have  the  Mikado  designated  by  any  title  hut  that  of 
Whang  Ti  (Japanese  Kotei)  showing  that  he  was  peer  to  the  Emperor  of  China  : 
while  the  Coreans  would  not,  in  the  same  document,  have  their  sovereign  written 
down  as  Wang  (Japanese  O)  because  they  wished  him  shown  to  be  an  equal  of 
the  Mikado,  though  ceremonially  subordinate  to  the  Whang  Ti  or  Emperor  of 
China.  The  poor  Coreans  were  puzzled  at  there  being  two  suns  in  one  heaven, 
and  two  equal  and  favorite  Sons  of  Heaven. 

The  commissioners  from  Seoul  attempted  to  avoid  the  dilemma  by  having 
the  treaty  drawn  up  in  the  names  of  the  respective  envoys  only ; this  the 
Japanese  refused  to  do.  A compromise  was  attempted  by  having  the  titles  of 
the  Mikado  of  Japan,  and  the  Hap-mun  of  Chd-sen  inserted  at  the  beginning : 
and,  in  every  necessary  place  thereafter,  “the  government”  of  Dai  Nippon 
(Great  Japan),  or  of  Dai  Cho-sen  (Great  Corea) ; this  also  failed.  Finally, 
neither  ruler  was  mentioned  by  name  or  title,  nor  was  reference  made  to  either, 
and  the  curious  document  was  drawn  up  in  the  name  of  the  respective  “ Gov- 
ernments. ” 


424 


COREA. 


tridents — led  the  procession,  in  which  was  a band  of  twenty  per. 
formers  on  metal  horns,  conch-shells,  flutes,  whistles,  cymbals, 
and  drums.  Effeminate-looking  pages  bore  the  treaty  documents. 
The  chief  envoy  rode  on  a platform  covered  with  tiger-skins,  and 
resting  on  the  shoulders  of  eight  men,  while  a servant  bore  the 
umbrella  of  state  over  his  head,  and  four  minor  officers  walked  at 
his  side.  The  remainder  of  the  suite  rode  in  jin-riki-shas,  and  the 
Japanese  military  and  eftil  escort  completed  the  display.  They 
breakfasted  at  the  town  hall,  and  by  railroad  and  steam-cars  reached 
Tokio.  At  the  station,  the  contrast  between  the  old  and  the  new 
was  startling.  The  Japanese  stood  “ with  all  the  outward  signs  of 
the  Civilization  that  is  coming  in.”  “ On  the  other  side,  were  all 
the  representatives  of  the  Barbarism  that  is  going  out.”  On  the 
following  day.  the  Coreans  visited  the  Foreign  Office,  and  on  June 
1st,  the  envoy,  though  of  inferior  rank,  had  audience  of  the  mikado. 
For  three  weeks  the  Japanese  amused,  enlightened,  and  startled 
their  guests  by  showing  them  their  war  ships,  arsenals,  artillery, 
torpedoes,  schools,  buildings,  factories,  and  offices  equipped  with 
steam  and  electricity — the  ripened  fruit  of  the  seed  planted  by 
Perry  in  1854  All  attempts  of  foreigners  to  hold  any  communi- 
cation with  them,  were  firmly  rejected  by  the  Coreans,  who  started 
homeward  June  28th  The  official  diary,  or  report  by  the  ambas- 
sador of  this  visit  to  Japan,  was  afterward  published  in  Seoul.  It 
is  a colorless  narrative  carefully  bleached  of  all  views  and  opinions, 
evidentlv  satisfying  the  scrutinv  even  of  enemies  at  court. 

During  the  autumn  of  this  year,  1876,  and  later  on,  in  follow- 
ing years,  the  British  war-vessels,  Sylvia  and  Swinger,  were  engaged 
in  surveying  portions  of  the  coast  of  Kiung-sang  province.  Cap- 
tain H.  C.  Saint  John,  who  commanded  the  Sylvia,  and  had  touched 
near  Pusan  in  1855 — long  enough  to  see  a native  bastinadoed  simply 
for  selling  a chicken  to  a foreigner— now  found  more  hospitable 
treatment  His  adventures  are  narrated  in  his  chatty  book,  “ The 
Wild  Coasts  of  Nipon.”  An  English  vessel,  the  Barbara  Taylor, 
having  been  wrecked  on  Corean  shores,  an  attache  of  the  British 
Legation  in  Tokio  was  sent  to  Fusan  to  thank  the  authorities  for 
their  kind  treatment  of  the  crew. 

The  Japanese  found  it  was  not  wise  to  hasten  in  taking  advan- 
tage of  their  new  liberties  granted  by  treaty.  Is  ear  Fusan,  are 
thousands  of  graves  of  natives  killed  in  the  invasion  of  1592-97, 
over  which  the  Coreans  hold  an  annual  memorial  celebration. 
Hitherto  the  Japanese  had  been  rigorously  kept  within  their 


THE  PORTS  OPENED  TO  JAPANESE  COMMERCE 


425 


guarded  enclosure.  Going  out  to  witness  the  celebration,  they 
were  met  with  a shower  of  stones,  and  found  the  road  block- 
aded. After  a small  riot  in  which  many  words  and  missiles 
were  exchanged,  matters  were  righted,  but  the  temper  of  the 
people  showed  that,  as  in  old  Japan,  it  would  be  long  before 
ignorant  hermits,  and  not  over-gentle  foreigners  could  live  quietly 
together. 

Saigo,  of  Satsuma,  dissatisfied  with  the  peaceful  results  of  Ku- 
roda’s  mission,  and  the  “ brain  victory  ” over  the  Coreans,  organ- 
ized, during  1877,  “The  Satsuma  Rebellion,”  to  crash  which  cost 
Japan  twenty  thousand  lives,  $50,000,000,  and  seven  months  of 
mighty  effort,  the  story  of  which  has  been  so  well  told  in  the 
lamented  A.  H.  Mounsey’s  perspicuous  monograph.  Yet  out  of 
this  straggle,  with  which  Corea  manifested  no  sympathy,  the  nation 
emerged  with  old  elements  of  disturbance  eliminated,  and  with  a 
broader  outlook  to  the  future.  A more  vigorous  policy  with  Cho- 
sen was  at  once  inaugurated. 

Under  the  new  treaty,  Fusan  (Corean,  Pu-san)  soon  became  a 
bustling  place  of  trade,  with  a population  of  two  thousand,  many 
of  whom,  however,  were  poor  people  from  Tsushima.  Among  the 
public  buildings  were  those  of  the  Consulate,  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, Bank,  Mitsu  Bislii  (Three  Diamonds)  Steamship  Company, 
and  a hospital,  under  care  of  Dr.  Yano,  in  which,  up  to  1882,  four 
thousand  Coreans  and  many  Japanese  have  been  treated.  A Japan- 
ese and  Corean  newspaper,  Cho-sen  Shimpo,  restaurants,  places 
of  amusements  of  various  grades  of  morality,  and  a variety  of  es- 
tablishments for  turning  wits  and  industry  into  money,  have  been 
established.  The  decayed  gentry  of  Japan,  starting  in  business 
with  the  capital  obtained  by  commuting  their  hereditary  pensions, 
found  it  difficult  to  compete  with  the  trained  merchants  of  Tokio 
and  Ozaka.  Great  trouble  from  the  lack  of  a gold  and  silver  cur- 
rency has  been  experienced,  as  only  the  copper  and  iron  sapeks,  or 
* cash,’  are  in  circulation.  In  Corean  political  economy  to  let  gold 
go  out  of  the  country  is  to  sell  the  kingdom  ; and  so  many  rogues 
have  attempted  the  sale  of  brass  or  gilt  nuggets  that  an  assaying 
office  at  the  consulate  has  been  provided.  The  government  of 
Tokio  has  urged  upon  that  of  Seoul  the  adoption  of  a circulating 
medium  based  on  the  precious  metals ; and,  perhaps,  Corean  coins 
may  yet  be  struck  at  the  superb  mint  at  Ozaka.  While  gold  in 
dust  and  nuggets  has  been  exported  for  centuries,  rumor  credits 
the  vaults  at  Seoul  with  being  full  of  Japanese  gold  koban,  the 


426 


COREA. 


mountains  to  be  well  packed  with  auriferous  quartz,  and  the  rivers 
to  run  with  golden  sands. 

Among  the  callers,  with  diplomatic  powers,  from  the  outside 
world  in  1881,  each  eager  and  ambitious  to  be  the  first  in  wresting 
the  coveted  prize  of  a treaty,  were  two  British  captains  of  men-of- 
war,  who  arrived  on  May  21st  and  28th  ; a French  naval  officer, 
June  16th,  who  sailed  away  after  a rebuff  June  18th  ; while  at  Gen- 
san,  June  7tli,  the  British  man-of-war,  Pegasus,  came,  and  saw,  but 
did  not  conquer. 

After  six  years  of  mutual  contact  at  Fusan,  the  Coreans,  though 
finding  the  Japanese  as  troublesome  as  the  latter  discovered  for- 
eigners to  be  after  their  own  ports  were  opened,  have,  with  much 
experience  learned,  settled  down  to  endure  them,  for  the  sake  of 
a trade  which  undoubtedly  enriches  the  country.  The  Coreans 
buy  cotton  goods,  tin-plate,  glass,  dyes,  tools,  and  machinery, 
clocks,  watches,  petroleum,  flour,  lacquer-work,  iron,  hollow-ware, 
and  foreign  knick-knacks.  A good  sign  of  a desire  for  personal 
improvement  is  a demand  for  bath-tubs.  Soap  will  probably  come 
next. 

The  exports  are  gold  dust,  silver,  ox  hides  and  bones,  beche-de- 
mer,  fish,  rice,  raw  silk,  fans,  cotton,  and  bamboo  paper,  gin- 
seng, furs  of  many  kinds,  tobacco,  shells  for  inlaying,  dried  fish, 
timber,  beans  and  peas,  hemp,  jute,  various  plants  yielding  paper- 
stock,  peony-bark,  gall-nuts,  varnishes  and  oils,  and  a variety  of 
other  vegetable  substances  having  a universal  commercial  value. 

Even  Riu  Kiu  has  seen  the  benefits  of  trade,  and  five  mer- 
chants from  what  is  now  the  Okinawa  ken  of  the  mikado’s  empire 
— formerly  the  Loo  Choo  island  kingdom — came  to  Tukio  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1882,  to  form  a company  with  a view  to  establishing  an 
agency  in  Fusan,  and  exchanging  Corean  products  for  Riu  Kiu 
sugar,  grain,  and  fish. 

Gensan  (Corean,  Won-san)  was  opened  May  1,  1880.  In  a fer- 
tile region,  traversed  by  two  high  roads,  with  the  fur  country  near, 
and  a magnificent  harbor  in  front,  the  prospects  of  trade  are 
good.  The  Japanese  concession,  on  which  are  some  imposing  pub- 
lic buildings,  includes  about  forty-two  acres.  An  exposition  of 
Japanese,  European,  and  American  goods  was  established  which 
was  visited  by  25,000  people,  its  object  being  to  open  the  eyes 
and  pockets  of  the  natives,  who  seemed,  to  the  Tokio  merchants, 
taller,  stouter,  and  better  looking  than  those  of  Fusan.  One 
twenty-sixth  of  the  goods  sold  was  Japanese,  the  rest,  mostly  cot- 


THE  PORTS  OPENED  TO  JAPANESE*  COMMERCE. 


427 


ton  goods  and  ‘ notions,’  were  American  and  European.  The  busy 
season  of  trade  is  in  autumn  and  early  winter.  For  the  first  three 
months  the  settlers  were  less  troubled  by  tigers  than  by  continual 
rumors  of  the  approach  of  a band  of  a thousand  “ foreigner- haters,” 
who  were  sworn  to  annihilate  the  aliens  on  the  sacred  soil  of  Cho- 
sen. The  bloodthirsty  braves,  however,  postponed  the  execution 
of  their  purpose.  The  Japanese  merchants,  so  far  from  finding  the 
Coreans  innocently  verdant,  soon  came  in  contact  with  monopolies, 
rings,  guilds,  and  tricks  of  trade  that  showed  a surprising  knowledge 
of  business.  Official  intermeddling  completed  their  woe,  and  loud 
and  long  were  the  complaints  of  the  mikado’s  subjects.  Yet  profits 
were  fair,  and  the  first  anniversary  of  the  opening  of  the  port  was 
celebrated  in  grand  style.  Besides  dinners  and  day  fireworks,  the 
police  played  the  ancient  national  game  of  polo,  to  the  great  amuse- 
ment of  the  Coreans.  Among  the  foreign  visitors  in  May,  1881,  was 
Doctor  Frank  Cowan,  an  American  gentleman,  and  surgeon  on  the 
Japanese  steamer  Tsuruga  Maru,  who  made  a short  journey  in  the 
vicinity  among  the  good-natured  natives.  Besides  spying  out  the 
land,  and  returning  well  laden  with  trophies,  he  records,  in  a letter 
to  the  State  Department  at  Washington,  this  prophecy  : “ Next  to 
the  countries  on  the  golden  rim  of  the  Pacific,  ....  to  dis- 
turb the  monetary  equilibrium  of  the  world,  will  be  Corea.”  “The 
geological  structure  is  not  incompatible  with  the  theory  that  the 
whole  region  [east  coast]  is  productive  of  the  precious  metal.” 

To  regulate  some  points  of  the  treaty,  and  if  possible  postpone 
the  opening  of  the  new  port  of  In-chiun  (Japanese,  Nin-sen)  a second 
embassy  was  despatched  to  Japan,  which  arrived  at  Yokohama, 
August  11,  1880.  The  procession  of  tall  and  portly  men  dressed 
in  green,  red,  and  pink  garments  of  coarse  cloth,  with  Chinese 
shoes,  and  hats  of  mighty  diameter,  moved  through  the  streets  amid 
the  rather  free  remarks  of  the  spectators,  who  commented  in  no 
complimentary  language  on  the  general  air  of  dinginess  which 
these  Rip  Van  Winkles  of  the  orient  presented.  The  Coreans  re- 
mained in  Tokio  until  September  8th.  Perfect  courtesy  was  every- 
where shown  them,  as  they  visited  schools  and  factories,  and 
studied  Japan’s  modern  enginery  of  war  and  peace.  The  general 
attitude  of  the  Tokio  press  and  populace  was  that  of  condescend- 
ing familiarity,  of  generous  hospitality  mildly  flavored  with  con- 
tempt, and  tempered  by  a very  uncertain  hope  that  these  people 
might  develop  into  good  pupils — and  customers. 

Cho-sen  did  not  lack  attentions  from  the  outside  world — Russia, 


428 


COREA. 


England,  France,  Italy,  and  the  United  States— during  the  year 
1880.  Whether  missionaries  of  the  Holy  Synod  of  Russia  at- 
tempted to  cross  the  Tumen,  we  do  not  know  ; but  in  the  spring 
of  1880,  a Muscovite  vessel  appeared  off  one  of  the  ports  of  Ham- 
Iviung,  to  open  commercial  relations.  The  offer  was  politely  de- 
clined. The  Italian  war-vessel  Vettor  Pisani,  having  on  board  H. 
R.  H.  the  Duke  of  Genoa,  arrived  off  Fusan,  August  1,  1880,  at 
1 p.m — a few  hours  after  the  Corean  embassy  had  left  for  Japan. 
Oue  survivor  of  the  Italian  ship,  Bianca  Portia,  wrecked  near  Quel- 
part  in  1879,  had  been  kindly  treated  by  the  Corean  authorities 
and  sent  to  Nagasaki.  The  duke,  through  the  Japanese  consul, 
forwarded  a letter  of  thanks  to  the  governor  of  Tong-nai,  who, 
however,  returned  the  missive,  though  with  a courteous  answer. 
After  seven  days,  the  Vettor  Pisani  sailed  northward,  and  avoiding 
Gensan  and  the  Japanese  consul,  anchored  off  Port  Lazareff  where, 
during  his  six  days’  stay,  he  was  visited  by  the  local  magistrate,  to 
whom  he  committed  a letter  of  application  for  trade.  Some  native 
cards  of  silk-worm’s  eggs  were  also  secured  to  test  their  value  for 
Italy.  After  a three  days’  visit  to  Gensan  the  ship  sailed  away,  the 
Italian  believing  that  negociations  with  the  Coreans  would  succeed 
better  without  Japanese  aid,  and  congratulating  himself  upon  hav- 
ing been  more  successful  than  the  previous  attempts  by  the  Brit- 
ish, and  especially  by  the  French  (Captain  Fourmier,  of  the  Lynx) 
and  American  (Commodore  Shufeldt)  diplomatic  agents,  whose  let- 
ters were  returned  unread. 

The  Government  of  the  United  States  had  not  forgotten  Corea, 
and  Japan  had  signified  her  willingness  to  assist  in  opening  the 
hermit  nation  to  American  commerce.  On  April  8,  1878,  Senator 
Sargent,  of  California,  offered  a resolution  that  President  Hayes 
“ appoint  a commissioner  to  represent  this  country  in  an  effort  to 
arrange,  by  peaceful  means  and  with  the  aid  of  the  friendly  offices 
of  Japan,  a treaty  of  peace  and  commerce  between  the  United 
States  and  the  Kingdom  of  Corea.”  The  bill  passed  to  a second 
reading,  but,  the  Senate  adjourning,  no  action  was  taken.  In  1879, 
the  U.  S.  steamship  Ticonderoga,  under  Commodore  R.  W.  Shufeldt, 
was  sent  on  a cruise  around  the  world  in  the  interests  of  American 
commerce,  and  to  make,  if  possible,  a treaty  with  Corea.  Enter- 
ing the  harbor  of  Fusan,  May  14,  1880,  Commodore  Shufeldt 
begged  the  Japanese  consul,  who  visited  the  ship,  to  forward  his 
papers  to  Seoul.  The  consul  complied,  but,  unfortunately,  neither 
the  interpreters  nor  the  governor  of  Tong-nai — preferring  present 


THE  PORTS  OPENED  TO  JAPANESE  COMMERCE. 


429 


pay  and  comfort  to  possible  future  benefit — would  have  anything  to 
do  with  such  dangerous  business.  Japanese  rumor  asserts  that 
the  Coreans  seeing  the  letter  addressed  on  the  outside  to  “the 
King  of  Corea,”  declined  to  receive  it,  partly  because  their  sover- 
eign was  “ not  King  of  Korai  ” but  “ King  of  Cho-sen.”  Under  the 
circumstances,  the  American  could  do  nothing  more  than  with- 
draw, which  he  did  amid  the  usual  salute  from  a Corean  fort  near 
bv.  A second  visit  being  equally  fruitless,  the  Ticonderoga  again 
turned  her  stem  toward  “ the  last  outstanding  and  irreconcilable 
scoffer  among  nations  at  western  alliances,”  and  her  prow  home- 
ward. 

The  Corean  embassy,  failing  in  their  attempts  to  have  the  Jap- 
anese go  slowly,  Hanabusa,  the  mikado’s  envoy  at  Seoul,  now  vigor- 
ously urged  the  opening  of  the  third  port,  and,  after  much  discus- 
sion, In  chiun,1  twenty-five  miles  from  Seoul,  was  selected  ; in  De- 
cember, 1880,  Hanabusa  and  his  suite,  crossing  the  frozen  rivers, 
went  thither,  and  selected  the  ground  for  the  Japanese  concession. 

The  old  questions  upon  which  political  parties  in  the  hermit 
nation  had  formed  themselves,  now  sank  out  of  sight,  and  the  new 
element  of  excitement  was  the  all-absorbing  question  of  breaking 
the  seals  of  national  seclusion.  The  “ Civilization  Party,”  or  the 
Progressionists,  were  opposed  to  the  Exclusionists,  Port-closers, 
and  Foreigner-haters.  Heading  the  former  or  liberal  party  were 
the  young  king  and  queen,  Bin  Kenko,  Bin  Shoshoko,  Ri  Saiwo, 
and  other  high  dignitaries,  besides  Kin  Giokin  and  Jo  Kohan,  for- 
mer envoys  to  Japan.  The  leader  of  the  Conservatives  was  the  Tai- 
wen-kun,  father  of  the  king  and  late  regent.  The  neutrals  clus- 
tered around  Kin  Koshiu. 

Physically  speaking,  the  Coreans  see  the  sun  rise  over  Japan 
and  set  over  China,  but  morally,  and  in  rhetoric,  their  sun  of  pros- 
perity has  ever  risen  and  set  in  China.  Some  proposed  to  buy  all 
machinery,  arms,  and  government  material  in  China,  and  imitate 
her  plans  and  policy,  and  conform  to  the  advice  of  her  statesmen. 
The  other  side  urged  the  adoption  of  Japanese  methods  and  mate- 
rials. The  pro-Chinese  gentry  imitated  the  Peking  mandarins  in 

1 This  fu  city,  called  by  the  Japanese  Ninsen,  or  Nii-gawa,  was  well  known 
by  the  Japanese,  as  is  shown  on  their  map;  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
name  means  Two  Rivers.  The  rise  and  fall  of  the  tides  here  is  very  great, 
sometimes  amounting  to  a difference  of  twenty-nine  feet ; and  in  winter  the 
shore-water  is  frozen.  Large  vessels  cannot  anchor  within  a mile  of  the  shore. 
The  port  Chi-mul-no  is  at  some  distance  from  the  city. 


430 


COREA. 


details  of  dress,  household  decoration,  and  culture  ; while  all  theil 
hooks  conveying  Western  science  must  be  read  from  Chinese  trans- 
lations. The  pro-Japanese  Coreans  had  their  houses  furnished  with 
Japanese  articles,  they  read  and  studied  Japanese  literature  and 
translations  of  European  books,  and  when  out  of  Corea  the  most 
radical  among  them  wore  coats  and  pantaloons.  The  long  and  hot 
disputes  between  the  adherents  of  both  parties  seriously  hampered 
the  government,  while  precipitating  a revolution  in  the  national 
policy  ; for  serious  debate  in  a despotic  country  is  a sign  of  awak- 
ening life. 

About  this  time,  early  in  1881,  a remarkable  document,  com- 
posed by  Kwo-in-ken,  adviser  to  the  Chinese  Minister  to  Japan,  had 
a lively  effect  upon  the  court  of  Seoul.  It  was  entitled  “ Policy  for 
Corea.”  It  described  the  neighbors  of  Cho  sen,  and  pointed  out 
her  proper  attitude  to  each  of  them.  From  Russia,  devoted  as  she 
is  to  a policy  of  perpetual  aggrandizement  at  the  expense  of  other 
countries,  and  consumed  by  lust  for  land,  Corea  is  in  imminent 
danger.  China,  on  the  contrary,  is  Corea’s  natural  ally  and  friend, 
ever  ready  with  aid  in  men  and  money  ; both  countries  need  each 
other,  and  their  union  should  be  as  close  as  lips  and  teeth.  For 
historical  and  geographical  reasons,  Corea  and  Japan  should  also  be 
one  in  friendship,  and  thus  guard  against  “Russia  the  ravenous.” 
The  next  point  treated  is  the  necessity  of  an  alliance  between  Corea 
and  the  United  States,  because  the  Americans  are  the  natural 
friends  of  Asiatic  nations.  Pointing  out  the  many  advantages  of 
securing  the  friendship  of  the  Americans,  and  making  a treaty 
with  them  first,  the  memorialist  urges  the  Coreans  to  seize  the 
golden  opportunity  at  once. 

About  the  same  time,  Li  Hung  Chang,  China’s  liberal  states- 
man, wrote  a letter  to  a Corean  gentleman,  in  which  the  advice  to 
seek  the  friendship  of  China  and  the  United  States  was  strongly 
expressed,  and  a treaty  with  the  Americans  urged  as  a matter  of 
national  safety.  Many,  though  not  all,  of  the  members  of  the  em- 
bassies to  Japan  returned  full  of  enthusiasm  for  Western  civiliza- 
tion. It  soon  became  evident  that  the  king  and  many  of  his  ad- 
visers were  willing  to  make  treaties.  In  Peking,  the  members  of 
the  embassy,  before  the  winter  of  1881  was  over,  began  diplomatic 
flirtations  with  the  American  Legation.  At  that  time,  however, 
neither  Minister  J.  B.  Angell,  in  Peking,  nor  John  A.  Bingham, 
in  Tokid,  had  any  authority  to  make  a treaty  with  Corea.  While 
the  way  was  thus  made  ready,  the  representations  of  Messrs.  Bing- 


THE  PORTS  OPENED  TO  JAPANESE  COMMERCE.  431 

liarn  and  Angell  to  the  State  Department  at  Washington  impressed 
upon  our  Government  the  necessity  of  having  a diplomatic  agent 
near  at  hand  to  take  advantage  of  the  next  opportunity.  Hitherto 
the  only  avenue  of  entrance  seemed  through  the  Japanese  good 
offices  ; but  the  apparent  willingness  of  Coreans  in  Peking,  the  ex- 
perience of  the  Italians  in  the  Yettor  Pisani  at  Fusan  and  Port 
Lazareff,  the  advice  of  Chinese  statesmen  to  Corea  to  have  faith  in 
the  United  States,  and  to  open  her  ports  to  American  commerce, 
convinced  the  American  minister  at  Peking  that  China,  rather  than 
Japan,  would  furnish  the  better  base  of  diplomatic  operations  for 
breaking  down  the  Corean  repulsive  policy. 

The  Government  at  Washington  responded  to  the  suggestion, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1881,  Commodore  Shufeldt  was  sent  by  the 
State  Department  to  Peking  as  naval  attache  to  the  Legation,  so  as 
to  be  near  the  American  Minister  and  be  ready  with  his  experi- 
ence, should  a further  attempt  “to  bring  together  the  strange 
States  of  the  Extreme  Sea  ” be  made. 

Shortly  after  the  presentation  of  Kwo-in-ken’s  memorial  in 
Seoul,  a party  of  thirty-four  prominent  men  of  the  civilization 
party,  led  by  Gio  Inchiu  and  Kio  Yeichoku,  set  out  from  Seoul  to 
visit  Japan  and  further  study  the  problem  of  how  far  Western  ideas 
were  adapted  to  an  oriental  state. 

The  proposition  to  open  a port  so  near  the  capital  to  the  Japa- 
nese, and  to  treat  with  the  Americans,  was  not  left  unchallenged. 
The  ultra-Confucianists,  headed  by  Ni  Mansun,  stood  ready  to  op- 
pose it  with  word  and  weapon.  In  swelling  Corean  rhetoric,  this 
bigoted  patriot  from  Chung-chong  proved  to  his  own  satisfaction 
that  all  the  nations  except  China  and  Corea  were  uncivilized,  and 
that  the  presence  of  foreigners  would  pollute  the  holy  land.  Gath- 
ering an  array  of  seven  hundred  of  his  followers,  he  dressed  in 
mourning  to  show  his  grief,  and  with  the  figure  of  an  axe  on  his 
shoulders,  in  token  of  risking  his  life  by  his  act,  he  presented  his 
memorial  to  the  king,  and  sat  for  seven  days  in  front  of  the  royal 
palace.  He  demanded  that  In-chiun  should  not  be  opened,  the  two 
Bin  should  be  deposed,  and  all  innovations  should  cease. 

The  popular  form  of  the  dread  of  foreigners  was  shown  in  dele- 
gations of  country  people,  who  came  into  Seoul  to  forward  petitions 
and  protestations.  Placards  were  posted  on  or  near  the  palace 
gates,  full  of  violent  language,  and  prophesying  the  most  woful 
results  of  Western  blight  and  poison  upon  the  country  which  had 
ever  been  the  object  of  the  special  favor  of  the  sprits. 


432 


COREA. 


Another  party  of  two  thousand  literary  men,  fanatical  patriots, 
had  assembled  at  Cho-rio  to  go  up  to  Seoul  to  overawe  the  pro- 
gressive ministers,  but  were  met  by  messengers  from  the  court  and 
turned  back  by  the  promise  that  the  party  about  to  visit  Japan 
under  royal  patronage  should  be  recalled.  For  a moment  the 
king  had  thrown  a sop  to  these  cerberian  zealots,  whose  three 
heads  of  demand  would  keep  Cho-sen  as  inaccessible  as  Hades. 

The  order  came  too  late,  the  progressionists  had  left  the  shores, 
and  were  in  Nagasaki.  Thence  to  Ozaka,  where  some  remained  to 
study  the  arts  and  sciences ; the  majority  proceeded  to  Tokio  to 
examine  modern  civilization  in  its  manifold  phases.  Unlike  Peter 
the  Great,  some  of  these  reformers  began  with  themselves,  cloth- 
ing mind  and  body  with  the  nineteenth  century.  Dropping  the 
garments  of  picturesque  medievalism,  they  put  on  the  work- 
suit  of  buttoned  coat  and  trousers  and  learned  the  value  of  minutes 
from  American  watches.  The  cutting  off  their  badge  of  nationality 
— the  top-knot — was  accompanied  with  emotions  very  similar  to 
those  of  bereavement  by  death. 

Gio  Inchiu 1 after  his  return  from  Japan  was  despatched  on  a 
mission  to  China,  where  his  conference  was  chiefly  with  Li  Hung 
Chang.  He  returned  home  by  way  of  Fusan,  December  29,  1881. 
He  had  now  a good  opportunity  of  judging  the  relative  merits  of 
Japan  and  China.  His  patriotic  eye  saw  that  the  first  need  of 
Corean  reform  was  in  strengthening  the  army  ; though  the  poverty 
of  the  country  gave  slight  hope  of  speedy  success. 

The  results  of  this  mission  were  soon  apparent,  for  shortly 
after,  eighty  young  men,  of  the  average  age  of  twenty,  were  sent 
to  Tientsin,  where  they  are  now,  1882,  diligently  pursuing  their 
studies ; some  in  the  arsenal,  learning  the  manufacture  of  fire- 
arms, others  learning  the  English  language.  A returned  Chinese 
student — one  of  the  number  lately  recalled  from  New  England — 
while  severely  sarcastic  at  the  Corean  government’s  “poor  dis- 
crimination in  selecting  the  country  from  which  her  students 
could  profit  most,”  added,  “ they  possess  a far  better  physique  for 
the  navy  than  any  of  our  future  imperial  midshipmen.” 


1 In  this  and  the  following  chapter  the  names  of  Corean  noblemen  have 
been  given  in  their  Japanese  form,  i.e. , Bin  for  Min,  etc.,  but  in  the  Supple- 
mentary Chapter  according  to  Corean  pronunciation. 


CHAPTER  XLVm. 


THE  YEAR  OF  THE  TREATIES. 

The  year  1882  opened  ominously.  A fire  broke  out  in  the  royal 
palace  in  Seoul,  on  January  27th,  in  which  two  buildings,  nearly 
completed  for  the  heir  apparent,  were  burned  down.  The  fire  was 
at  first  believed  to  have  political  significance,  and  the  tension  of 
the  public  mind  was  not  relaxed  until  it  was  shown  that  the  fire 
was  the  result  of  pure  accident. 

The  spirit  of  progress  made  advance,  but  discussion  reached 
fever-heat  in  deciding  whether  the  favor  of  Japan  or  China  should 
be  most  sought,  and  which  foreign  nation,  the  United  States, 
France,  or  England,  should  be  admitted  first  to  treaty  rights.  Bin, 
opposed  to  the  arbitrary  spirit  of  the  Japanese,  edged  his  argu- 
ment by  proposing  an  alliance  with  foreigners  in  order  to  check- 
mate the  designs  of  Japan. 

An  event  not  unlooked  for  increased  the  power  of  the  progres- 
sionists. One  Kozaikai  urged  the  plea  of  expulsion  of  foreigners  in 
such  intemperate  language  that  he  was  accused  of  reproaching  the 
sovereign.  At  the  same  time,  a conspiracy  against  the  life  of  the 
king,  involving  forty  persons,  was  discovered,  and  the  sword  and 
torture  came  into  play.  Kozaikai  was  put  to  death,  many  of  the 
conspirators  were  exiled,  and  the  ringleaders  were  sentenced  to 
be  broken  alive  on  the  wheel,  the  revolutions  of  which  tore  off 
hands  and  feet  in  succession.  Six  of  those  doomed  to  death  were 
spared,  through  the  intercession  of  a minister,  and  one,  the  king’s 
cousin,  who  delivered  himself  up,  was  pardoned  by  his  sovereign  on 
the  ground  of  the  prisoner’s  insanity.  The  Progressionists  had 
now  the  upper  hand,  and  early  in  the  spring  Gio  Inchiu  and  Riosen 
left  on  a mission  to  Tientsin,  to  acquaint  the  Americans  and  Chinese 
with  the  information  that  the  Corean  government  was  ready  to 
make  treaties,  and  that  the  proper  officer  would  be  at  In-chiun  to 
sign  the  compact  and  complete  the  negotiations. 

Meanwhile  the  reforms  in  military  affairs  were  begun  with  en- 
26 


434 


COREA. 


ergy.  Japanese  officers,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  Lieutenant 
Horimoto,  drilled  picked  men  in  Seoul,  with  creditable  success,  in 
spite  of  their  unwieldy  hats  and  costume,  and  the  jeers  of  the  anti- 
foreign  people,  in  public  as  well  as  in  private.  Substantial  proof 
of  the  adoption  of  Japan’s  military  system  was  shown  in  an  order 
sent  to  Tokio  for  a few  hundred  Snider  rifles  with  equipments — 
the  weapon  of  the  British  army — and  one  for  twenty  thousand  of 
the  rifles  made  at  the  Japanese  arsenal  in  Tokio,  which,  combining 
the  merits  of  the  best-known  military  fire-arm,  contained  improve- 
ments invented  and  patented  by  Colonel  Murata,  of  the  mikado’s 
army.  Two  Corean  notables  later  again  visited  Japan  in  April  of 
this  year,  and  were  annoyed  to  find  a report  spread  abroad  in  Na- 
gasaki that  they  had  come  to  raise  a money  loan.  Nevertheless, 
they  proceeded  to  Kioto  and  Tokio.  Some  of  their  suite  went  into 
the  printing-offices  and  silk  worm  breeding  establishments  to 
leam  these  arts,  while  type,  presses,  and  printing  material  were 
ordered  for  use  at  home. 

Affairs  had  so  shaped  themselves  that  even  to  outsiders  it  be- 
came evident  that  the  Corean  apple  was  ripe  even  to  falling.  By 
March  4th  it  was  known  at  the  American  Legation  in  Peking  that 
“ Barkis  was  willin’,”  while  to  the  Japanese  envoy  then  in  Tokio 
it  became  certain  that,  unless  he  made  all  haste  to  In-chiun,  the 
American  commodore  would  have  his  treaty  signed  and  be  off 
without  even  waiting  for  a call.  Hastily  bidding  his  friends 
good-by,  he  left  in  the  Japanese  steamer,  Iwaki  Kuan,  and  ar- 
rived in  the  harbor  just  one  hour  before  the  American  corvette 
Swatara  arrived  with  Commodore  Shufeldt  on  board.  With  the 
Swatara  were  three  Chinese  men-of-war,  one  of  them  an  iron- 
clad. 

The  American  diplomatic  agent,  Commodore  R.  W.  Shufeldt, 
having  spent  nearly  a year  in  China,  surmounting  difficulties  that 
few  will  know  of  until  the  full  history  of  the  American  treaty  with 
Corea  is  written,  arrived  in  the  Swatara  off  Chimulpo,  May  7th.  Ac- 
companied by  three  officers,  Commodore  Shufeldt  went  six  miles  into 
the  interior  to  the  office  of  the  Corean  magistrate  to  formulate  the 
treaty.  Though  surrounded  every  moment  by  curious  crowds,  no 
disrespect  was  shown  in  any  way.  Two  days  afterward,  the  treaty 
document  was  signed  on  a point  of  land  in  a temporary  pavilion 
opposite  the  ship.  Thus,  in  the  most  modest  manner  the  negotia- 
tions were  concluded,  and  a treaty  with  the  United  States  was,  after 
repeated  failures,  secured  by  the  gallant  officer  who,  by  this  act 


THE  YEAR  OF  THE  TREATIES. 


435 


of  successful  diplomacy,  closed  a long  and  brilliant  professional 
career. 1 

Both  on  the  American  and  Corean  side  the  results  had  been 
brought  about  only  after  severe  toil.  The  Corean  nobleman  Bin, 
a cousin  of  the  queen,  had  so  labored  in  Seoul  night  and  day  to 
commit  the  government  to  the  policy  of  making  treaties  with  the 
Americans,  that,  when  the  messengers  had  been  despatched  with 
the  order  for  Commodore  Shufeldt  to  appear  in  Imperatrice  Gulf, 
he  fell  ill,  and  was  unable  to  appear  at  In-chi  un.  The  American 
envoy  was  so  worn  out  with  anxiety  and  toil  by  his  efforts  to  have 
Corea  opened  under  Chinese  auspices,  that  on  landing  at  San  Fran- 
cisco, he  retired  to  the  naval  hospital  at  Mare’s  Island  to  recover 
his  exhausted  strength. 

Four  days  after  the  signing  of  the  American  and  Chinese  treaties, 
the  Corean  capital  was  full  of  mirth  and  gayety,  on  account  of  a 
wedding  in  the  royal  family.  The  crown  prince,  a lad  of  nine  years 
old,  was  wedded  to  the  daughter  of  Jun,  a nobleman  of  high  rank, 
who  had  postponed  a visit  to  Japan  until  the  nuptials  were  accom- 
plished. A brilliant  procession  in  the  streets  of  Seoul  marked  the 
event,  and  for  a moment  the  excitement  concerning  foreigners  was 
forgotten.  None  foresaw  the  bloody  ending  of  this  honeymoon  so 
happily  begun. 

The  British  minister  at  Tokio,  Sir  Harry  Parkes,  who  had  left  no 
stone  unturned  to  secure  a personal  interview  with  the  ambassador 


1 Commodore  R.  W.  Sliufeldt  was  born  in  Dutchess  County,  New  York,  in 
1822,  and  entered  the  navy  in  1839,  serving  ten  years  on  foreign  stations  and 
in  the  coast  survey.  One  cruise  to  the  west  coast  of  Africa  interested  him  in 
the  negro  colony  of  Liberia,  in  which  he  has  ever  since  felt  concern.  From 
1850  to  1860,  our  navy  being  in  a languishing  state,  he  was  engaged  in  the 
mercantile  marine  service,  and  in  organizing  a transit  route  across  the  Isthmus 
of  Tehuantepec.  In  1860  an  article  of  his  on  the  slave  trade  between  the  Is- 
land of  Cuba  and  the  coast  of  Africa,  drew  the  attention  of  the  government  to 
him,  and  led  to  his  appointment  of  Consul-General  at  Havana.  The  slave-trade 
was  soon  effectually  broken  up,  and  through  the  trying  period  of  the  first  half 
of  the  civil  war,  he  was  occupied  in  his  civil  duties,  at  one  time  going  to  Mex- 
ico on  a confidential  mission  to  President  Juarez,  passing  unrecognized  through 
the  French  lines.  He  was  on  blockade  duty  during  the  last  two  years  of  the 
civil  war.  In  1865  he  went  to  China,  as  flag-captain  of  the  Hartford,  and  com- 
manding the  Wachusett  visited  Corea.  In  1870  he  organized  a party  for  the 
survey  of  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  his  report  being  made  the  basis  of  Cap- 
tain Eads’  ship-railway  project.  The  official  history  of  the  semi-diplomatic 
cruise  of  the  Ticonderoga  round  the  world  (1878-1880)  has  been  written,  but 
has  not  yet  been  published. 


436 


COREA. 


in  1876,  and,  since  that  time,  British  trade  with  Corea,  was  still  on 
the  alert.  He  at  once  ordered  Admiral  Willes  to  proceed  to  In- 
cliiun.  Leaving  his  large  fleet  in  Japanese  waters,  Admiral  Willes 
left  Nagasaki  in  the  Vigilant,  May  27th,  while  Mr.  William  G.  As- 
ton, the  accomplished  linguist  and  Corean  scholar,  received  orders 
to  follow.  The  Admiral's  business  was  soon  despatched,  a treaty 
was  made,  and  his  return  to  Yokohama  was  accomplished  June  14th, 
the  U.  S.  steamship  Asliuelot  saluting  him  on  his  arrival.  The  French 
and  Germans  were  the  next  to  improve  the  long-awaited  opportunit}’. 
The  German  admiral  left  Japan  in  the  man-of-war  Stosch,  on  May 
31st,  while  a vessel  of  the  French  navy  entered  the  port  of  In- 
chiun  June  5 th.  There  had  thus  appeared  in  this  sequestered  nook  of 
creation,  within  a few  days,  two  American,  three  British,  one  French, 
one  Japanese,  and  five  Chinese  armed  vessels.  All  of  them,  except 
the  French,  had  left  by  June  8th,  to  the  great  relief  of  the  country 
folks  and  old  men  and  women,  many  of  whom,  with  the  children, 
had  fled  to  the  hills  when  the  big  guns  began  to  waste  their  powder 
in  salutes,  to  the  detriment  of  the  thatched  roofs  of  the  houses. 

China  lost  no  time  in  taking  advantage  of  the  position  secured 
her  by  treaty.  No  vexatious  delays  of  ratification  troubled  her. 
Everything  had  been  arranged  beforehand  with  the  Coreans,  so 
that,  on  the  return  of  the  vessels  from  In-chi  un,  officers  were  de- 
spatched to  Shanghae  to  sail  for  Gensan  and  Fusan,  and  select  land 
for  public  buildings. 

During  the  present  year  the  Japanese  legation  in  Seoul  has 
numbered  about  forty  persons,  including  secretaries,  interpreters, 
militai-y  officers,  policemen,  students,  and  servants.  Notwith- 
standing their  precarious  situation,  amid  the  turbulent  elements  at 
work  around  them,  they  seemed  to  enjoy  the  spectacle  before  their 
eyes  of  a repetition  of  the  history  of  their  own  country  after 
Perry’s  arrival  in  1853.  The  young  men  of  the  legation  visited  the 
historic  sites  near  the  capital,  enjoyed  the  mountain  and  river 
scenex-y,  and  studied  the  Corean  language  and  literature.  At  first 
the  common  people  believed  that  their  visitors  sucked  the  blood  of 
the  children  lui’ed  away  by  them  ; and  so  carefully  guarded  their 
little  ones.  By  and  by,  howevei’,  as  more  liberty  was  afforded 
them,  the  occasional  pelting  with  vegetables  and  pebbles  became 
less  frequent,  and  even  the  women  would  talk  with  them. 

The  light-hearted  Japanese  seemed  to  suspect  no  imminent  dan- 
ger, although  the  old  fanatic  and  tyrant  Tai-wen  Kun  was  still  alive 
and  plotting.  To  insure  perfect  secrecy  for  his  plans,  it  is  said 


THE  YEAR  OF  THE  TREATIES. 


437 


that  he  employed  two  or  three  mutes  to  wait  on  him,  and  act  as 
his  messengers.  He  was  the  centre  of  all  the  elements  hostile  to 
innovation,  and  being  a man  of  unusual  ability,  was  possessed  of 
immense  influence.  The  populace  of  Seoul  and  of  the  country  had 
been  taught  to  believe  that  “ the  Japanese  were  inebriated  with 
the  manners  of  Christian  nations,  and  were  enchanted  by  the  West- 
ern devils,  and  that  as  a Europeanized  country  of  the  devil  was 
being  created  in  their  immediate  neighborhood,  they  must  expel 
the  barbarians.”  Every  means  had  been  used  to  inflame  the  peo- 
ple against  foreigners.  Stone  monuments  had  been  set  up  on  the 
high  roads  and  market-places  which  bore  this  inscription — “The 
Western  barbarians  will  come  to  invade  our  soil,  there  are  but  two 
alternatives  for  Cho-sen  ; to  go  to  war,  or  to  maintain  peace.  To 
submit  peacefully  means  to  sell  the  country  ; therefore  we  Coreana 
must  resort  to  arms.”  Many  thousands  of  these  inscribed  stones, 
had  been  set  up,  and  an  edict  had  been  issued,  commanding  the 
ink-makers  to  inscribe  their  sticks  of  ink  with  this  inflammatory 
declaration.  When  nobles  of  high  rank  would  advocate  progres- 
sive views,  Tai-wen  Kun  would  sneeringly  dare  them  to  remove- 
these  anti-foreign  monuments. 

During  the  nine  years  of  his  nominal  retirement  from  office,, 
from  1873  to  1882,  this  bigoted  Confucianist,  who  refused  to  know 
anything  of  the  outer  world,  bided  his  time  and  waited  his  oppor- 
tunity, which  came  during  the  summer  of  the  present  year.  Just 
when  the  populace  was  most  excited  over  the  near  presence  of  the 
Americans  and  other  foreigners  at  In-chiun,  the  usual  rainfall  was 
withheld,  the  wells  dried  up,  and  in  the  consequent  drouth,  the 
rice  crop  was  threatened  with  total  failure.  The  diviners,  sorcer 
ers,  and  anti-foreign  party  took  advantage  of  the  situation  to  play 
on  the  fears  of  the  superstitious  people.  The  spirits,  displeased  at 
the  intrusion  of  the  Western  devils,  were  angry  and  were  cursing 
the  land.  At  the  same  time  the  soldiery  of  the  capital  were  dis- 
affected, as  some  say  on  account  of  arrearages  of  wages,  or  as 
others  aver,  because  the  old  warriors  of  the  bow  and  arrow  hated 
the  Japanese  method  of  drilling  as  a foreign  innovation  insulting 
to  the  gods.  A more  probable  reason  is  that  on  account  of  the 
failure  of  the  rice-harvest,  the  soldiers’  rations  were  cut  down,  and 
they  were  deprived  of  this  clioiee  cereal  for  food.  Among  the  first 
Corean  officers  killed  was  the  superintendent  of  the  rice  store- 
houses, which  were  pillaged  by  the  hungry  mob. 

On  July  23d,  while  the  king  was  out  in  the  open  air  praying 


438 


COREA. 


for  rain,  a mob  of  sympathizers  -with  Tai-wen  Kun  attempted  to 
seize  his  person.  The  king  escaped  to  the  castle.  According  to 
one  account,  some  mischief-maker  then  started  the  report  in  the  city 
that  the  Japanese  had  attacked  the  royal  castle,  and  had  seized  the 
king  and  queen,  and  that  the  prime  minister  with  the  palace-guards 
in  vainly  endeavoring  to  beat  back  the  assailants,  had  been  defeated : 
and  that  every  Corean  should  take  up  arms.  Forthwith  the  mob 
rushed  with  frantic  violence  upon  the  legation,  murdering  the 
Japanese  policemen  and  students  whom  they  met  in  the  streets 
and  the  Japanese  militai-y  instructors  in  the  barracks.  Not  satisfied 
with  this,  the  rioters,  numbering  4,000  men,  attacked  and  destroyed 
the  houses  of  the  ministers  favoring  foreign  intercourse.  Before 
quiet  was  restored,  the  queen,  Min,  the  heir  apparent  and  his  wife, 
t be  chief  ministers  of  the  government,  Min  Thai  Ho  and  Min 
Yong  Ik,  were,  as  was  supposed,  murdered  ; but  all  these  emerged 
alive.  Many  of  the  Mins  and  seven  Japanese  were  killed. 

The  Japanese,  by  their  own  account,  had  suspected  no  danger 
until  the  day  of  the  riot,  when  they  noticed  great  excitement  among 
the  people,  and  that  crowds  were  assembling  and  rushing  to  and  fro. 
They  sent  out  a policeman  to  inquire  into  the  nature  of  the  dis- 
turbance, and  at  two  o’clock  p.m.  they  learned  from  a native  that  the 
mob  would  attack  the  legation.  Word  was  also  sent  to  the  Japanese 
by  the  Corean  officer  in  charge  of  the  drill-ground  where  the  troops 
were  trained  by  Lieutenant  Horimoto,  saying  that  the  troops  drilled 
in  Japanese  tactics  had  been  attacked,  and  the  legation  would 
next  be  in  danger.  Hanabusa  and  his  suite  then  arranged  a plan 
of  defence.  While  thus  engaged,  a Corean  employed  at  the  lega- 
tion informed  them  that  the  mob  had  destroyed  the  houses  of 
the  two  ministers  Bin,  and  were  attacking  three  Japanese  stu- 
dents. Three  policemen  well  armed  then  left  to  succor  the  students, 
but  nothing  was  heard  from  either  policemen  or  students  again. 
A Corean  officer  now  appeared  and  warned  the  Japanese  to  escape 
to  the  hill  back  of  the  legation  ; and  being  requested  by  Hanabusa 
to  ask  the  government  for  soldiers,  he  left  on  this  errand.  At  5.50 
p.m.  the  mob  reached  the  legation,  and  raising  a united  yell,  fired 
volleys  of  bullets,  arrows,  and  big  stones  at  the  legation,  but  dared 
not  enter  the  gate  to  face  the  revolvers  of  the  policemen.  In  hurling 
stones  the  ruffians  showed  remarkable  skill.  The  mob  set  on  fire  a 
house,  near  by,  and  in  the  rising  wind — then  boding  a coming  storm 
— two  out-houses  of  the  legation  were  burned,  the  police  shoot- 
ing down  the  incendiaries  when  they  could  see  them.  It  was  now 


THE  YEAR  OF  THE  TREATIES. 


439 


about  ten  o’clock,  and  the  ruffians  having  thrown  up  barricades  to 
hem  in  their  victims  and  to  shield  their  cowardly  carcases  while 
shooting,  the  Japanese  fired  the  remaining  buildings,  and  armed 
only  with  swords  and  pistols,  formed  themselves  into  a circle, 
charged  the  mob,  and  cut  their  way  through  to  the  house  of  the 
chief  magistrate,  which  they  found  empty.  Finding  no  one  in  the 
official  residence,  they  marched  to  the  southern  gate  of  the  royal 
castle.  Instead  of  opening  it,  the  soldiers  on  the  wall  above  pelted 
them  with  stones. 

Hanabusa  now  resolved  to  cross  the  river  with  his  party  and 
make  his  way  to  In-chiun.  Turning  their  backs  on  the  flames,  they 
arrived  at  the  river  and,  on  the  ferryman  refusing  to  convey  them 
across,  they  seized  the  boat  and  crossed  safely  to  the  other  side. 
It  was  now  past  midnight  and  the  rain  began  to  fall  heavily,  and 
with  occasional  thunderstorms  continued  to  pour  down  all  night. 
The  refugees  plunged  on  through  the  darkness,  often  losing  their 
way,  but  next  day  at  ten  o’clock,  they  procured  some  raw  barley  to 
eat,  and  through  the  pelting  rain  pushed  on,  reaching  In-chiun  at 
3 p.m.  The  governor  received  them  kindly  and  supplied  food  and 
dry  clothing.  The  Japanese  officers  slept  in  the  official  residence, 
and  the  servants,  police,  and  others  in  a guard-house  about  fifteen 
yards  distant.  The  governor  posted  his  own  sentinels  to  watch  so 
that  the  Japanese  could  get  some  rest.  In  a few  minutes  the  tired 
men  were  sleeping  the  sleep  of  exhaustion. 

About  five  o’clock,  Hanabusa  and  his  officers  were  suddenly 
awakened  by  the  shouting  of  a mob  outside  ; and  in  a moment  more 
a Japanese  entered  covered  with  blood,  and  with  a drawn  sword  in 
his  hand  with  which  he  had  cut  his  way.  The  mob  had  attacked 
them  while  they  were  asleep,  and  the  soldiers  of  the  local  garrison 
were  joining  the  rioters,  firing  from  behind  fences.  All  the  Jap- 
anese now  hurried  on  their  clothes,  and  charging  a body  of  about 
forty  soldiers,  armed  with  swords  and  spears,  who  were  blocking  the 
gateway,  made  for  Chi-mul-po  seaport,  having  lost  three  killed  and 
two  missing. 

Meeting  two  Japanese  on  horseback  from  the  port,  who  reported 
that  the  road  was  free  from  ambuscades,  they  put  the  wounded  man 
on  one  horse,  and  by  another  despatched  one  of  their  number  to 
hasten  forward  and  have  a boat  ready.  They  reached  Chi-mul  po, 
the  port,  about  seven  o’clock,  and  immediately  crossed  over  to  Eoze 
Island  for  safety.  About  midnight,  having  procured  a junk,  they 
put  to  sea,  towrard  Nanyo  Bay,  where  they  knew  the  British  gunboat 


440 


COREA. 


Firing  Fish  was  then  on  survey.  Encountering  a southerly  wind, 
they  made  little  or  no  progress,  and  on  the  26th  a dense  fog  set 
in  ; but  at  11.30  a.m.,  it  cleared  up  and  the  welcome  sight  of  a 
three-masted  vessel  greeted  their  eyes.  Hoisting  the  flag  of  Japan, 
they  saw  their  signal  answered,  and  soon  the  party  of  twenty-six 
half-naked,  hungry,  and  cold  refugees  were  on  board  the  ship,  where 
kindest  treatment  awaited  them.  That  night  at  ten  o’clock  the 
Flying  Fish  sailed  for  Nagasaki.  On  August  3d  a religious  service 
in  memory  of  their  slain  comrades  was  held  hy  the  survivors,  at 
Shimonoseki.  “ The  deep  silence  was  only  broken  by  the  sobbing 
of  the  audience,  overcome  by  deep  sympathy  for  the  murdered 
men.”  On  the  8th  Hanabusa  had  an  audience  with  the  mikado  in 
Tokio. 

Without  hesitation,  the  Japanese  government  ordered  the  army 
to  assemble  at  Shinonoseki  and  Tsushima,  with  naval  forces  to  co- 
operate. Hanabusa  and  his  suite  were  sent  back,  escorted  by  a mili- 
tary force.  He  re  entered  Seoul,  August  16th,  and  was  received 
with  courtesy.  A fleet  of  Chinese  war-vessels  with  a force  of  four 
thousand  troops  was  also  at  hand.  Apparently  everything  was  under 
the  control  of  Tai-wen  Kun,  who  professed  to  be  friendly  to  foreign- 
ers, and  to  ascribe  the  recent  riot  to  a sudden  uprising  of  the  un- 
paid soldiery,  which  the  government  had  not  force  at  hand  to  sup- 
press. Two  Corean  officers  coming  on  board  the  Flying  Fish, 
August  10th,  informed  Captain  Hoskyn  that  the  soldiery,  dissatis- 
fied with  the  unfair  treatment  of  their  superiors,  had  incited  the 
peasantry  to  rebellion  ; that  by  orders  of  Tai-wen  Kun,  who  bit- 
terly regretted  the  recent  outrages,  the  dead  Japanese  had  been 
honorably  buried  ; that  the  old  regent  while  usurping  the  royal 
power,  had  professed  a total  change  of  views  and  was  in  favor  of  a 
progressive  policy. 

At  his  audience  with  the  king,  August  20th,  Hanabusa  presented 
the  demands  of  his  government.  These  were  nominally  agreed  to, 
but  several  days  passing  without  satisfactory  action,  Hanabusa  hav- 
ing exhausted  remonstrance  and  argument,  left  Seoul  August 
25th  and  returned  to  his  ship.  This  unexpected  move — a menace 
of  war — brought  the  usurper  to  terms.  On  receipt  of  Tai-wen 
Kun’s  apologies,  the  Japanese  envoy  returned  to  the  capital  August 
30th  and  hill  agreement  was  given  to  the  demands  of  Japan,  at 
which  time  it  would  appear,  Tai-wen  Kun,  forcibly  kidnapped 
by  the  envoy  of  China,  had  begun  his  travels  into  the  country  of 
Confucius. 


THE  YEAR  OF  THE  TREATIES. 


441 


The  following  telegram  to  the  Neiv  York  Tribune  of  October  2d, 
summarizes  the  news  from  Yokohama  up  to  September  13th  : 

The  Corean  Government  pledged  itself  to  the  following  conditions : To  ar- 
rest the  insurgents  within  twenty  days  and  inflict  due  punishment  upon  them, 
Japanese  delegates  to  be  present  at  the  trial ; to  bury  properly  the  bodies  of 
those  murdered  and  pay  50,000  yen  (dollars)  to  their  families;  to  pay  Japan 
500,000  yen  as  indemnity  for  expenditure,  etc.,  in  five  yearly  instalments;  to 
allow  Japanese  troops  in  Seoul  for  the  protection  of  the  legation,  and  to  pro- 
vide proper  accommodations  for  them  ; to  send  an  apology  by  a special  em- 
bassy to  Japan ; to  extend  gradually  privileges  to  the  Japanese  residents  and 
traders ; to  afford  proper  conveniences  for  travel  throughout  Corea  for  the 
Japanese  Government  officials. 

While  this  was  going  on  the  Chinese  envoy,  who  had  remained  inactive 
with  his  escort  until  August  25th,  suddenly  called  up  the  full  body  of  his 
troops,  about  three  or  four  thousand,  to  the  capital.  Wliat  degree  of  pressure 
he  may  have  exercised  is  not  yet  known,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  chief  rebel 
and  assassin,  the  Tai-wen  Kun,  was  taken  on  board  a Chinese  ship  and  carried 
to  Tien-tsin.  It  is  alleged  that  his  departure  was  by  no  means  voluntary,  and 
that  some  physical  effort  was  required  to  get  him  ashore  on  arriving  at  his  des- 
tination. Whatever  was  the  object  of  this  proceeding,  it  must  have  been  dic- 
tated by  Li  Hung  Chang,  the  Chinese  Viceroy  at  Tien-tsin,  who  seems  to 
have  quite  abandoned  his  demeanor  of  calm  stolidity  during  these  active  Co- 
rean transactions.  It  is  declared  by  one  Chinese  party  that  the  only  purpose 
was  to  rescue  the  Tai-wen  Kun  from  the  dangers  that  threatened  him,  and  by 
another  that  the  intent  was  still  to  maintain  the  theory  of  sovereign  control 
over  Corea’s  rulers,  which  Li  Hung  Chang  has  been  straining  for  throughout. 

During  the  recent  prospect  of  trouble  with  Corea,  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment received  offers  of  military  service  from  twenty  thousand  volunteers,  and 
of  money  gifts  to  the  value  of  200,000  yen. 

At  this  stage  of  affairs,  when  Corea  ceases  to  be  a “ hermit  na- 
tion,” and  stands  in  the  glare  of  the  world’s  attention,  we  bring 
our  imperfect  story  to  a close.  The  pivot  of  the  future  history  of 
Eastern  Asia  is  Corea.  On  her  soil  will  be  decided  the  problem  of 
supremacy,  by  the  jealous  rivals  China,  Japan,  and  Russia.  The 
sudden  assumption  of  self-imposed  tutelary  duties  by  China  proves 
her  lively  interest  in  the  little  country,  which  has  been  called  both 
“her  right  arm  of  defense,”  and  “her  gloved  hand” — the  one  to 
force  back  the  ravenous  Muscovite,  the  other  to  warn  off  the  ambi- 
tious Japanese.  Whether  the  Middle  Kingdom  has  deliberately 
chosen  the  Land  of  Morning  Calm  to  affront  and  humiliate  “ the 
neighbor- disturbing  nation,”  that  twice  humbled  her  pride  in  the 
fairest  islands  of  the  sea — Formosa  and  Riu  Kiu — the  events  of 
the  not  distant  future  will  soon  determine.  Whether  the  hoary  em- 


442 


COREA. 


pire  shall  come  in  collision  with  the  young  northern  giant,  and  the 
dragon  and  the  bear  tear  each  other  in  the  slime  of  war  in  Corean 
valleys,  may  be  a question  the  solution  of  which  is  not  far  off.  We 
trust  that  amid  all  dangers,  the  integrity  of  the  little  kingdom  may 
be  preserved  ; but  whatever  be  the  issue  upon  the  map  of  the  world, 
let  us  hope  that  paganism,  bigotry,  and  superstition  in  Corea,  and 
in  all  Asia,  may  disappear  ; and  that  in  their  places,  the  religion  of 
Jesus,  science,  education,  and  human  brotherhood  may  find  an 
abiding  dwelling-place. 


CHAPTER  XLIX. 


THE  ECONOMIC  CONDITION  OF  COREA. 

For  nearly  a quarter  of  a century  Corea,  the  once  hermit  nation, 
has  been  opened  to  intercourse  with  the  world,  and  the  student 
has  had  facilities  for  understanding  the  country  and  people  and 
realizing  what  are  the  social  and  political  problems  of  humanity 
in  the  peninsula. 

As  in  most  old  Asiatic  states,  so  in  Corea,  there  is  an  almost 
total  absence  of  an  intelligent  middle  class,  which  in  the  West  is 
the  characteristic  of  progressive  nations.  In  the  Land  of  Morn- 
ing Radiance  there  is  a governing  minority  consisting  of  about 
one-tenth  of  the  whole  population.  These,  the  Yangban  (civil  and 
military),  living  in  ancient  privilege  and  prerogative  and  virt- 
ually paying  no  taxes  or  tolls,  prey  upon  the  common  people. 
The  great  bulk,  that  is,  nine-tenths  of  the  population,  is  agricult- 
ural and  is  gathered  in  hamlets  and  villages. 

The  typical  Corean  tills  the  soil,  in  which  occupation,  after  ages 
of  unprogressive  routine,  he  has  come  to  his  present  mental  status. 
There  is  not  even  a distinct  manufacturing  class  in  Corea,  for 
nearly  all  industry  is  still  in  the  cottage.  The  few  articles  needed 
by  the  laborer  for  the  floor,  the  wall,  and  the  kitchen  are  made 
by  the  farmer  during  his  winter  hours,  and  his  women-folk  weave 
and  make  up  the  clothing.  The  average  carpenter,  blacksmith, 
and  stone  mason  is  simply  a laborer  on  the  land  with  added  skill 
in  a special  line.  Even  the  fisherman  cultivates  the  soil.  The 
village  schoolmaster  is  a son  of  the  farmer  of  the  better  class. 
There  are  groups  of  population-office-holders  and  their  retainers 
and  hangers-on,  shopkeepers  and  traders,  butchers,  porters,  miners, 
junk-sailors,  and  innkeepers,  sorcerers,  gamblers,  and  fortune-tell- 
ers, but,  all  told,  the  number  of  men  who  do  not  live  on  the  soil 
form  but  a decimal  fraction  in  the  national  household. 

For  these  compelling  reasons  the  problems  of  internal  govern- 

443 


444 


COREA. 


ment  relate  almost  wholly  to  the  woe  or  weal  of  the  tillers  of  the 
soil.  During  the  summer  of  six  months  the  average  Corean 
stands  bare-legged  in  the  mud,  planting  or  cultivating  grain.  His 
wife  and  children,  especially  his  daughters,  help  him  in  the  rais- 
ing of  rice,  barley,  wheat,  and  beans,  and  in  the  harvesting  and 
securing  of  the  final  products.  During  the  four  cold  months  of 
the  year  he  is  at  work  gathering  fuel  or  making  mats,  sandals, 
screens,  or  thatch.  During  the  first  and  seventh  moons  he  enjoys 
an  easy  time,  doing  little  or  nothing,  and  these  two  months  are 
like  holiday.  The  average  income  of  a Corean  farmer  is  about 
thirty  dollars  a year.  The  average  house  in  Corea  consists  only 
of  mud,  straw,  twine,  and  wood,  above  a foundation  of  earth  faced 
with  stone  and  worth  but  a few  dollars.  The  price  of  waste  land 
is  from  one  to  five  dollars  an  acre,  and  of  cultivated  fertile  soil 
from  ten  to  sixty  dollars  an  acre.  The  lots  are  poorly  marked  and 
boundary  quarrels  are  incessant.  The  Corean  farmer  knows  little 
about  scientific  irrigation  or  variety  in  fertilizers,  dried  grass  being 
his  chief  manure.  The  mountains  are  greatly  denuded  of  their 
forests,  and  alternate  droughts  and  floods  work  awful  disasters. 
With  a naturally  good  soil  and  fine  climate,  agriculture  is  yet  in 
a backward  condition.  It  is  said  that  the  Japanese  in  the  six- 
teenth century  taught  the  Coreans  the  cultivation  of  rice,  millions 
of  bushels  of  which,  under  stimulus  from  the  same  source,  they 
are  now  able  to  export  annually.  In  recent  years  the  Japanese 
have  attempted  to  secure  control  of  the  waste  lands  of  Corea  so 
as  to  develop  them,  not  only  for  the  production  of  cereals,  vege- 
table wax,  paper  fibre,  and  stuff  for  weaving,  but  also  for  cotton 
to  supply  the  demands  of  the  Osaka  mills.  Their  demands,  pressed 
too  severely  in  July,  1904,  were  the  cause  of  vigorous  native  pro- 
test in  great  public  meetings. 

The  Corean  rustic  is,  as  a rule,  illiterate.  Probably  only  about 
four  out  of  ten  males  of  the  farming  class  can  read  either  Chinese 
or  Corean,  but  counting  in  the  women  it  is  estimated  that  about 
eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  people  can  neither  read  nor  write, 
though  the  percentage  varies  greatly  with  the  locality.  As  a gen- 
eral thing,  there  is  more  acquaintance  with  books  and  writing  in 
the  southern  than  in  the  northern  provinces.  It  is  pitiful  to  find 
in  the  Budget  for  1904  that  but  $27,718  are  appropriated  for 
schools  outside  of  Seoul,  the  latter  receiving  $135,074,  of  which 


THE  ECONOMIC  CONDITION  OF  COREA- 


445 


the  sum  of  $44,220  goes  to  foreign  teachers  in  the  English,  French, 
German,  Russian,  Chinese,  and  Japanese  language  schools.  Al- 
though since  1895  the  old  civil-service  examinations  have  been 
abolished  and  there  has  been  a Department  of  Education,  it  has 
thus  far  had  little  influence  upon  the  country  at  large.  In  the 
central  office  in  1904,  out  of  $28,617  appropriated,  $19,857  went 
for  salaries  and  office  expenses,  $6,500  being  for  text-book  printing. 

The  Corean  farmer  is  simple  in  his  dress,  food,  and  habits.  He 
does  not  journey  far  from  home.  Although  the  high-roads  are 
lively  with  travellers,  one  sees  not  the  farmer  but  the  literati,  the 
traders,  and  the  porters.  Few  country  folks  ever  visit  the  large 
cities,  and  in  regions  near  the  capital  few  have  seen  Seoul.  Cus- 
tom is  the  eternal  law  to  the  rustic,  who  is  patient,  bearing  extor- 
tion until  flesh  and  blood  can  stand  it  no  longer,  when  he  rises 
in  revolt  against  his  oppressor.  Yet  it  is  against  the  bad  man, 
not  the  system  itself,  that  he  protests.  After  the  obnoxious  officer 
has  been  recalled  or  driven  away  and  temporary  relief  is  obtained, 
the  Corean  farmer  settles  down  into  a good  tax-paying  subject  as 
of  yore,  and  unless  something  like  the  Tong  Hak  movement  stirs 
him,  his  wheel  of  life  quickly  slips  again  into  the  rut  of  routine. 
As  long  as  he  can  get  enough  to  eat  he  is  content.  When  oppres- 
sion and  robbery  are  joined  to  Nature’s  niggardliness,  he  and  his 
comrades  are  transformed  into  a howling  mob  of  starving  mal- 
contents, ready  for  bloody  vengeance. 

The  son  of  the  soil  is  superstitious  to  the  last  degree.  He 
lives  in  constant  terror  of  the  demons  and  spirits  that  overpopulate 
earth,  air,  and  water,  for  he  is  without  the  protection  that  the  cer- 
tainties of  science  or  the  strength  of  pure  religion  furnishes.  No 
unifying,  uplifting,  and  inspiring  knowledge  of  one  God  is  his. 
His  thatched  hut  or  mud-floored  hovel  is  a museum  of  fetiches. 
Often  he  will  give  the  best  fruits  of  the  fields  to  what  seems  to 
an  alien  a mass  of  straw  or  rags.  The  sorceress  thrives  like  a 
fat  parasite  on  the  farmer,  getting  well  paid  for  her  songs,  dances, 
incantations,  and  presence  at  the  feasts.  Yet  the  Corean  enjoys 
the  religious  festivals.  He  is  at  least  just  to  himself,  while  pro- 
fessing generosity  to  the  spirits.  He  honors  the  gods  but  ulti- 
mately puts  the  well-cooked  offerings  far  from  them — even  into 
his  own  interior;  for  above  all  things,  the  worshipper  is  orthodox 
in  his  belief  in  a well-filled  stomach. 


446 


COREA. 


With  such  a people,  both  Confucianism  and  Buddhism  become 
the  grossest  of  superstitions.  The  Corean’s  face  is  toward  the 
past.  He  invokes  and  worships  the  dead,  and  to  him  the  graveyard 
contains  more  than  the  future  can  bring  him.  Besides  the  extor- 
tions of  the  nobles,  officials,  and  other  parasitic  or  predatory 
classes,  the  expense  of  offerings  to  his  dead  ancestors  amounts  to 
many  millions  of  dollars  a year,  far  exceeding  in  their  total  the 
national  revenue.  In  Seoul  alone  there  are  three  thousand  sor- 
ceresses, each  earning  at  least  $7.50  a month.  The  farmer  is  poor, 
but  he  is  hospitable  and  liberal.  He  has  untold  reverence  for 
learning  and  for  rank,  he  loves  flowers  and  beautiful  scenery,  but 
he  is  stupid  in  the  presence  of  an  innovation.  His  area  of  vision 
is  bounded  by  the  hills  within  the  circle  of  which  he  was  born.  His 
chief  recreation  is  in  going  to  market,  for,  generally  speaking,  there 
are  few  shops  in  the  peninsula,  but  there  is  a market  every  five  or 
six  days,  where  the  natives  exchange  their  products  and  their 
opinions.  According  to  the  state  of  weather  conditions,  the  native 
is  happy  or  suffers,  a large  harvest  making  all  smile,  a scant  crop 
causing  famine  and  hunger  and  the  outbreak  of  banditti  and 
rapine.  Besides  buying  and  selling,  huckstering  and  gossiping, 
there  are  at  the  markets  plenty  of  fighting  and  drunkenness  as 
diversions.  Going  out  for  wool  the  farmer  frequently  comes  home 
shorn,  but  he  has  had  his  fun,  or  rather  a variation  of  deadly 
monotony.  Furthermore,  he  is  fond  of  a joke  and  loves  to  chaff 
his  fellows. 

As  the  country  itself  is  governed  out  of  the  graveyard,  and 
sovereign,  court,  and  people  are  driven  by  imaginary  demons  and 
spirits,  so  the  farmers,  both  as  individuals,  as  families,  and  as 
clans,  guard  jealously  and  in  fear  the  ancestral  mounds  with 
superstitious  reverence.  Hence  one  large  element  of  village  excite- 
ment is  in  quarrelling  and  fighting  over  graves.  About  fifty  per 
cent  of  the  cases  brought  before  the  country  magistrates  are  said 
to  be  connected  with  these  grave  fights.  These  bitter  struggles 
involve  whole  clans  and  result  in  bloodshed  and  loss  of  life.  Even 
the  dead  are  not  allowed  to  Test  in  peace.  The  digging  up  of 
corpses  and  the  tumbling  of  them  beyond  the  limits  in  dispute  is 
a common  occurrence.  This  ghoulish  activity  is  varied  by  an  occa- 
sional abduction  of  widows  or  by  other  infractions  of  the  law. 
Another  large  element  of  anxiety  to  the  farmer  is  the  protection 


THE  ECONOMIC  CONDITION  OF  COREA. 


447 


of  the  water  supply  for  his  rice-swamp.  The  damming  of  the 
stream  above  or  the  draining  off  of  the  water  below  may  ruin  his 
crop.  The  breaking  of  the  mud  boundaries,  and  the  stealing  of 
water  from  a neighbor’s  field  is  mirrored  in  proverbs  and  folk- 
lore. It  is  sufficiently  habitual  to  furnish  a plentiful  supply  of 
pretexts  for  quarrels  and  fighting. 

There  are  four  classes  of  agriculturists.  The  lowest  tiller  of 
the  soil  is  a serf,  owning  no  land,  working  by  the  day  or  contract, 
and  virtually  bound  to  the  glebe.  The  men  of  the  next  class, 
though  owning  no  lands,  work  the  farms  of  others  on  shares. 
These  farm-hands  and  farm-tenants  make  up  the  great  mass  of 
the  Corean  people.  They  live  in  thatched  mud  huts,  with  enough 
plain  food  to  keep  them  alive  and  often  fat,  but  with  scanty 
change  of  garments  and  few  or  no  comforts  of  life.  They  are 
occupied  during  the  working  months  from  daybreak  to  twilight 
in  unremitting  toil.  The  third  class  consists  of  the  small  owners 
with  possessions  worth  from  five  hundred  to  five  thousand  dollars 
and  numbering  three  per  cent  of  the  farming  population.  In  the 
fourth  or  highest  class  are  the  landed  proprietors,  the  aristocracy 
of  the  land,  the  richest  member  being  worth  as  much  as  four  or 
five  million  dollars,  with  an  annual  income  of  at  least  a quarter 
of  a million.  Insignificant  in  numbers,  they  are  mighty  in  power, 
for  it  is  these  great  landowners  who  rule  the  realm,  and  most  of 
them  live  in  Seoul. 

To  the  great  mass  of  the  people  in  Corea  there  is  no  motive 
for  much  industry  beyond  danger  of  starvation,  and  but  little 
incentive  to  enterprise.  Under  old  normal  conditions  now  being 
slowly  ameliorated,  the  official,  the  yangban,  and  the  landed  aris- 
tocracy, in  a word,  the  predatory  classes,  seize  upon  the  common 
man’s  earnings  and  accumulations,  so  that  it  seems  to  him  useless 
and  even  foolish  to  work  for  more  than  enough  to  support  life, 
while  as  for  the  “ civilization  nonsense,”  does  it  not  mean  more 
taxation?  On  the  13th  of  November,  1902,  the  announcement 
was  made  of  the  increase  in  land  tax  from  $10  per  measure  of 
ground  to  $16  per  measure.  So  argues  the  average  man  in  Corea, 
the  land  long  ruled  by  real  oppressors  and  imaginary  demons. 

The  researches  of  scholars  have  also  revealed  the  actual  eco- 
nomic conditions  of  the  nation  in  the  days  of  hermitage.  Old  Corea 
was  not,  as  in  feudal  Japan,  straitened  in  its  production  of  food. 


448 


COREA. 


In  the  island  empire  only  about  one-twelfth  of  the  soil  was  or 
could  be  cultivated.  Hence  Japan  was  rigidly  limited  in  her  food- 
producing  area,  so  that  the  population,  besides  being  kept  down 
through  such  natural  checks  as  famine,  pestilence,  storm  and 
flood,  was  further  diminished  to  fit  the  food  supply  by  such  arti- 
ficial means  as  sumptuary  laws,  licensed  prostitution,  infanticide, 
cruel  punishments,  and  frequent  decapitation.  In  Corea,  also, 
where  the  fertile  earth,  though  formed  to  be  inhabited  and  abundant 
in  area  of  plain  and  valley,  was  neither  properly  replenished  nor 
subdued,  many  checks  upon  population  existed.  Local  famines 
were  frequent  and  often  long  continued,  and  neither  religion  nor 
the  means  of  transportation  furnished  the  means  of  saving  life  to 
any  large  amount.  Artificial  checks  on  too  rapid  multiplication 
of  humanity  operated  powerfully.  The  lesser  care  and  kindness 
given  to  female  children  resulted  in  a heavy  death-rate  as  compared 
■with  that  of  the  boys,  the  cruel  punishments  and  frequent  torture 
and  decapitation  and  the  lack  of  incentive  to  industry  all  wrought 
together  to  make  both  the  land  and  the  human  life  on  it  of  com- 
paratively slight  value. 

The  whole  situation  was  changed  when  Corea  ceased  to  be  a 
hermit  land  and  began  to  be  fertilized  by  foreign  commerce  and 
ideas.  Confronted  by  new  methods  of  trade,  science,  and  religion, 
the  thinking  native  was  summoned  to  thought  and  action.  Into 
the  Corean  mind,  long  held  in  bondage  by  Confucianism,  which 
degrades  woman  and  narrows  man’s  intellect,  the  universal  religion 
entered  to  compel  the  Corean  man  to  think  of  other  lands  and 
people  besides  his  own,  to  search  his  own  heart,  to  attempt  to  make 
himself  and  his  neighbors  better,  and  to  take  a new  outlook  on  the 
universe.  The  new  doctrines  delivered  believers  from  the  paralyz- 
ing thrall  of  demons  and  evil  spirits,  from  ancestor  worship,  and 
from  the  sceptre  held  by  the  hand  rising  out  of  the  grave.  Into 
the  Corea  clamped  as  in  iron  bands  by  false  economic  notions 
entered  the  spirit  of  free  competition.  Into  a land  that  knew 
no  such  thing  as  a foreign  market  the  railway  brings  an  eager  pur- 
chaser to  the  farmer’s  door,  and  by  carrying  his  goods  to  the  sea- 
ports it  enables  him  to  give  to  and  receive  manifold  benefits  from 
the  world  at  large. 

Already,  through  the  energy  of  the  canny  islanders  from  the 
east,  the  crops  in  Corea  have  quadrupled,  though  under  native 


THE  ECONOMIC  CONDITION  OF  COEEA. 


449 


mismanagement  this  does  not  necessarily  mean  immediate  benefit 
to  the  man  on  the  soil,  but  rather  to  the  official  class,  or  to  the  land- 
holder in  the  capital.  It  has  been  computed  that  the  production 
of  sixty  million  bushels  of  grain  have  thus  been  developed  in  Corea 
through  the  Japanese  demand.  Between  the  feverish  enterprise  of 
the  Japanese  on  the  one  side  and  the  tireless  thrift  of  the  Chinese 
on  the  other,  “ the  good  old  days  ” of  primitive  routine  are  gone 
forever.  Corea  has  4,500,000  acres  under  cultivation,  or  about 
eight  and  a half  per  cent  of  her  82,000  square  miles  of  area,  so 
that  3,500,000  available  acres  await  the  plough.  From  her  arable 
soil  six  millions  more  of  population  might  easily  find  subsistence, 
and  nearly  ten  millions  of  dollars  of  crops  could  be  raised.  The 
peninsula  needs  in  every  great  valley  the  railway,  which  “ quad- 
ruples the  valley  of  every  foot  of  land  within  twenty  miles  of  its 
line.”  The  line  from  Fusan  to  Seoul  has  already  raised  the  value 
of  town  property  in  elect  places  hundreds  of  per  cent  and  meas- 
urably all  along  between  the  terminals.  This  railway  was  begun 
in  August,  1901,  but  though  the  work  slackened  for  lack  of  capital, 
by  December  1,  1903,  thirty-one  miles  at  either  end  had  been  built. 
The  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Russia  revealed  its  military  value 
and  promise  was  at  once  given  that  by  Japanese  Government  aid 
it  would  be  completed  with  its  thirty-one  tunnels  and  20,500  feet 
of  bridges  by  the  end  of  1904.  This  Fusan-Seoul  railway,  287 
miles  long,  will  traverse  four  provinces  in  the  richest  part  of 
Corea,  wherein  are  seven-tenths  of  all  the  houses  and  five-sevenths 
of  all  the  cultivated  area  in  the  empire.  Here  also  are  the  sites 
of  the  great  fairs  held  six  times  monthly,  the  thirty-nine  stations 
of  the  road  being  located  at  or  near  these  places  of  trade,  the 
total  business  of  which  amounts  to  over  sixty-five  per  cent  of  the 
internal  trade  of  the  empire. 

The  Corean  social  and  political  system,  sufficiently  weak  in 
hermit  days,  has  shown  itself  unable  to  withstand  the  repeated 
shock  of  attack  by  eager  and  covetous  foreigners,  nor  will  it  ever 
be  able,  even  in  a measure,  to  defend  itself  against  the  fierce  and 
unrelenting  greed  of  the  strong  nations  intrenched  upon  its  soil, 
except  by  complete  reorganization.  Both  the  outward  forms  and 
the  inward  spirit  must  change  if  the  Coreans  are  to  preserve  their 
national  identity.  The  nation  has  been  the  bone  of  contention 
between  jealous  and  greedy  rivals.  One  foreign  government  by 


450 


COREA. 


crafty  diplomacy  secures  the  right  of  cutting  timber  valued  at 
millions  of  dollars,  another  gets  mining  concessions,  others  propose 
this  or  that  industry  or  supposed  line  of  production  which  depleted 
the  treasury.  The  impoverished  kingdom  has  not  only  wasted 
many  millions  of  treasure  in  foolish  enterprises,  but  is  deprived 
of  its  natural  assets  in  timber,  metals,  fisheries,  and  industries. 

The  problem  of  bringing  Corea  into  harmony  with  her  modern 
environment  is  only  in  some  features  like  that  of  Japan,  for  there 
have  been  wanting  in  the  peninsula  what  was  so  effective  in  Japan’s 
case.  In  the  island  empire,  the  long  previous  preparation  by 
means  of  the  infiltration  of  Western  ideas  during  two  centuries  of 
communication  with  Europe  through  the  Dutch  merchants,  the 
researches  of  her  own  scholars  furnishing  inspiration  from  their 
national  history,  the  exercise  during  many  generations  of  true 
patriotism  and  self-sacrifice  for  the  public  good  prepared  the 
island  nation  to  cope  with  new  conditions  and  situations.  In  the 
clash  with  the  West,  Japan  came  out  victor.  Corea  has  no  samurai. 
She  lacks  what  Japan  has  always  had — a cultured  body  of  men, 
superbly  trained  in  both  mind  and  body,  the  soldier  and  scholar 
in  one,  who  held  to  a high  ideal  of  loyalty,  patriotism,  and  sacri- 
fice for  country.  The  island  samurai  enjoying  the  same  prerogative 
and  privilege  as  the  Corean  yangban  (civil  and  military)  not  only 
abolished  feudalism,  but  after  giving  up  their  hereditary  pensions 
and  privileges,  joined  the  productive  classes,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  Japanese  merchants  and  mechanics  were  raised  in  the 
social  scale,  the  pariahs  given  citizenship,  and  then  all  lines  of 
promotion  opened  to  all  in  the  army,  navy,  schools,  courts,  and 
civil  service.  The  fertilizing  streams  of  foreign  commerce,  the 
inspiration  that  comes  from  brotherhood  with  other  nations,  and 
above  all,  the  power  brought  to  Nippon  through  the  noble  labors 
and  object  lessons  of  the  Christian  missionaries,  enabled  the 
Japanese  to  take  equal  place  in  the  world  with  the  nations  of  the 
West.  Corea,  on  the  contrary,  by  still  allowing  the  existence  of 
predatory  classes — nobles,  officials,  and  great  landowners — by  de- 
nying her  people  education,  by  being  given  to  superstition  from 
palace  to  hut  and  from  sovereign  to  serf,  remains  still  in  weakness 
and  poverty.  What  Corea  above  all  needs,  is  that  the  lazy  yang- 
ban cut  their  long  finger-nails  and  get  to  work. 

Yet  dark  as  is  the  situation,  it  is  not  without  hope.  Slowly 


THE  ECONOMIC  CONDITION  OF  COREA. 


451 


and  painfully  the  Coreans  are  learning  that  no  nation  is  born  in 
a day.  Under  the  training  of  Christian  teachers,  a generation 
with  new  motives  to  action  and  new  mental  horizons,  and  fed  with 
food  to  sustain  the  spirit,  is  coming  on.  Christianity  is,  with  a 
remnant  at  least,  making  headway  against  the  vices  so  common  to 
this  mild-mannered  nation — skill  in  lying,  stealing,  gambling, 
drunkenness,  and  the  social  evil. 

For  ages  and  until  Japan  humbled  China  in  1894,  Corea  was 
so  thoroughly  and  in  all  things  the  vassal  and  pupil  of  the  Middle 
Kingdom,  from  which  most  of  the  elements  of  her  civilization  had 
been  borrowed,  that  in  the  tributary  kingdom  there  could  be  no 
patriotism  in  its  highest  sense,  nor  could  political  parties  and 
cliques  have  any  reason  for  existence  except  as  they  were  con- 
cerned with  aims  that  ended  in  selfishness.  With  the  people  in 
general,  there  was  only  anxiety  to  pay  taxes,  win  the  favor  of  the 
local  magistrate,  and  escape  the  clutches  of  the  law.  With  mas- 
ters and  rulers,  there  was  ever  pitiful  fear  of  the  great  country 
China,  and,  under  Confucianism,  a desire  to  keep  things  as  they 
were,  mixed  with  impotent  dread  of  change.  Of  pure  love  of  coun- 
try, of  willingness  to  make  sacrifices  for  their  native  land — that 
is  almost  a new  thought  as  yet  nourished  by  a few  far-seeing 
patriots.  In  the  evolution  of  the  Corean,  social  and  psychic,  his 
present  ethical  stage  is  not  beyond  that  of  the  group,  clan,  or 
neighborhood.  It  has  not  vet  reached  the  individual.  The  major- 
ity of  the  people  have  that  kind  of  patriotism  which  means  the 
instinctive  desire  to  preserve  national  identity.  The  one  thing 
which  they  now  fear,  being  in  the  vortex  of  the  great  storm  of  war 
and  in  the  centre  of  the  economic  typhoon  of  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury, is  national  extinction.  Even  to-day  the  Coreans  feel  that 
they  would  rather  live  without  the  new  things  of  civilization,  such 
as  railways,  education,  public  hygiene,  or  even  of  righteous  govern- 
ment, than  be  subject  to  an  alien  Power.  History  to  the  peninsular 
gives  no  uncertain  sound  as  to  what  foreign  intervention  ha& 
always  meant,  that  is,  more  oppression  and  even  rapine.  Seeing 
what  has  happened  in  half  a lifetime,  through  the  coming  of  the' 
alien  to  Corea,  the  native  does  not  want  civilization  at  the  hands 
of  foreigners,  though  it  may  be  that  he  will  have  to  take  it.  Pos- 
sibly through  education  and  a new  outlook  upon  the  universe  he 
will  be  glad  to  get  it,  even  struggling  for  it  until  by  assimilation! 


452 


COREA. 


it  becomes  his  own.  In  ancient  history  and  the  old  days  of  the 
separation  of  nations,  there  were  many  civilizations  and  varying 
standards.  In  these  latter  days  of  the  world’s  brotherhood  there 
is  but  one  standard  of  civilization,  and  but  one  body  of  interna- 
tional law,  which  all  must  obey.  The  nation  or  kingdom  that  will 
not  serve  and  obey  this  standard  will  pass  out  of  history  and 
perish.  The  signs  that  Corea  realizes  this  truth  and  that  her 
best  men  are  seeking  fraternity  with  their  fellows  for  help  and 
uplift  are  not  wanting.  Naturally  they  turn  to  the  great  republic, 
which  since  its  beginning  has  steadfastly  followed  the  policy  of 
healing,  helping,  teaching,  and  uplifting  the  Asiatic  nations. 

Corea  sent  a delegate  to  the  International  Postal  Union,  which 
met  in  Washington,  and  in  1896  a postal  system  with  stamps  of 
four  kinds  was  established,  and  under  French  auspices  has  been 
working  in  excellent  condition.  The  stamps,  as  well  as  the  national 
flag  and  documents,  coins  and  other  expressions  of  what  is  essen- 
tially representative  of  the  Coreans  as  a nation,  illustrate  their 
repertoire  of  symbolism.  The  flag  in  blue,  red,  black,  and  white 
contains  the  two  great  emblems  of  the  primitive  Chinese  philosophy 
and  theory  of  the  universe.  Through  these,  the  Corean  sees  all 
things  visible  and  invisible  produced  as  the  results  of  their  endless 
working  and  counteraction  in  combination  and  dissolution.  The 
forces  of  heaven  and  earth,  light  and  darkness,  the  positive  and 
the  negative,  the  male  and  the  female,  the  in  and  the  yo,  are  repre- 
sented as  two  germs  or  commas  in  constant  embrace  or  movement. 
This  figure  occupies  the  centre  of  the  field  and  in  each  corner  are 
the  broken  lines  of  the  Pal  Kwai,  or  eight  diagrams  of  primitive 
Chinese  tradition  concerning  the  origin  of  language  and  writing. 
On  the  stamps  we  read  the  Chinese  characters  Tai  han  and  Corea. 
Like  China,  old  Japan,  Russia,  Turkey  and  other  church  nations, 
which  unite  more  or  less  closely  Church  and  State  and  are  gov- 
erned, in  spite  of  all  outward  development  and  manifestations, 
by  primitive  or  mediaeval  notions,  Corea  is  a “ Tei  Koku,”  or 
“ divinely  governed  ” realm,  and  so  makes  profession  in  Chinese 
characters,  as  does  even  modern  Japan,  though  furnished  with  a 
Constitution  and  Diet.  Besides  these  Chinese  ideographs,  we  read 
in  English,  “ Imperial  Corean  Post,”  and  in  the  en-mun  or  native 
script,  a sentence  to  the  same  effect.  The  national  flower  is  the 
plum  blossom,  and  is  figured  with  its  leaves  on  either  side  of  the 


THE  ECONOMIC  CONDITION  OF  COREA. 


453 


stem.  The  value  or  denomination  of  the  stamp  is  given  below 
both  in  English  with  Roman  letters,  and  in  Corean  or  en-mun. 
The  date-mark  made  by  the  ink-stamp  shows  in  the  French  spell- 
ing of  the  name  of  the  country  and  capital  the  international  char- 
acter of  the  postal  system.  The  national  colors,  as  judged  by  the 
hangings  in  the  royal  palace,  are  yellow,  red,  and  green. 

Imitating  other  things  imperial  in  adjoining  or  Western 
nations,  the  Government  at  Seoul  established  a Bureau  of  Decora- 
tions. These  baubles,  being  liberally  distributed,  have  helped 
handsomely  to  deplete  the  treasury  of  the  little  empire,  most  of 
whose  people  live  in  a state  of  semi-starvation  or  righteous  discon- 
tent. The  Emperor  himself  and  his  generals  and  ministers  have 
had  their  breasts  liberally  adorned  with  various  marks  of  the 
regard  of  the  rulers  of  Japan,  Great  Britain,  Russia,  France,  and 
Belgium,  while  between  August  5,  1900,  and  December  20,  1902, 
the  Corean  Government  had  bestowed  forty-two  decorations,  re- 
quiring a liberal  outlay  of  bullion  and  artistic  workmanship.  To 
the  Emperor  of  Japan,  Queen  Victoria,  the  Czar  of  Russia,  the 
Kaiser  of  the  German  Empire,  the  President  of  the  French  Repub- 
lic, the  King  of  Italy,  the  King  of  the  Belgians,  the  Emperor  of 
Austria,  and  the  Crown  Prince  of  Japan,  the  Great  Decoration 
of  the  Golden  Measure  was  awarded.  This  contains  the  emblem 
in  the  centre  of  the  flag.  No  Americans  have  been  thus  officially 
adorned,  but  the  Great  Decoration  of  the  Golden  Measure  was 
offered  to  President  McKinley,  only  to  be  declined ; he  having,  hap- 
pily for  the  American  people,  nothing  to  offer  in  return.  The 
Great  Decoration  of  the  Plum  Blossom  has  been  given  to  Prince 
Kwacho  of  Japan  and  the  Russian  Prince  Cyril,  while  the  other 
decorations,  containing  the  Pal  Kwai  of  the  eight  mystic  diagrams 
and  the  plum  blossom  or  the  national  flower,  in  several  grades  or 
classes,  have  been  offered  to  various  servants  or  guests  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. Along  with  this  brilliancy  on  foreign  coat  breasts,  it  is 
suggestive  to  read  in  the  imperial  budget  for  1904  that  of  $19,560 
appropriated  to  the  bureau  of  decorations,  the  amount  expended  on 
bullion,  medals,  etc.,  was  $7,431,  and  for  salaries  $10,130.  Another 
interesting  item,  illuminating  economic  methods  in  Seoul,  is  that 
of  $10,453  appropriated  for  the  Mining  Bureau.  Of  this  amount 
the  sum  of  $8,173  was  spent  for  salaries  and  travelling,  all  the 
rest,  except  one  item  marked  “ miscellaneous  $744,”  being  for  office 


454 


COREA. 


expenses.  In  the  Ceremonial  Bureau  $19,000  were  used  on  salaries 
and  office  expenses  out  of  a total  of  $21,508.  Similar  titbits  of 
economic  information  are  frequent  under  the  heads  of  the  Board 
of  Generals  (who  supervise  an  army  supposed  to  be  five  thousand 
strong)  and  that  of  Imperial  Sacrifices,  and  others,  explain  very 
clearly  the  condition  of  a country  in  which  there  is  no  clear  line 
of  demarcation  between  the  palace  and  the  Government  or  admin- 
istration, while  eloquent  in  suggestions  as  to  the  reason  why  the 
larger  part  of  Corea  remains  in  a state  of  more  or  less  chronic 
insurrection. 

The  budget  for  1904  shows  a total  revenue  of  $14,214,573 
made  up  of  the  following  items:  land  tax,  $9,703,591;  house  tax, 
$460,295;  taxes  on  salt,  fish,  etc.,  $210,000;  poll  tax,  $850,000; 
miscellaneous  taxes,  $200,000;  arrears  from  1903,  $2,790,687. 

The  items  of  disbursement  are  as  follows:  Imperial  privy  purse, 
$1,013,359;  imperial  sacrifices,  $186,641;  household  department, 
$327,541;  war  department,  $5,180,614;  finance  department,  $42,- 
741,999  ; communications,  $637,648 ; incidentals  and  extras,  $1,843,- 
503.  Other  items,  of  which  the  police  bureau,  $406,925,  and  the 
foreign  department,  $287,367,  and  educational,  $205,673,  are  the 
more  important,  are  pension  bureau,  board  of  generals,  the  cabinet 
government  records,  bureau  of  decorations,  law  department,  de- 
partment of  agriculture,  privy  council,  and  special  palace  guard. 
It  is  pleasant  to  note  that  there  is  a surplus  of  $275,  but  the  amount 
given  for  education  and  expended  under  the  head  of  agriculture 
seems  pitiful.  The  large  items  of  the  budget  deal  almost  wholly 
with  the  salaries  of  native  officials.  One  interesting  and  redeem- 
ing item  among  the  “ extras  ” is  that  “ for  helping  shipwrecked 
men,  $5,000.” 

The  greatest  immediate  need  of  Corea  is  a uniform  and  stable 
currency.  Added  to  ancient  evils  was  the  action  of  Japan  in 
adopting  the  gold  standard  in  1899,  which  threw  all  things  com- 
mercial in  Corea  into  dire  confusion.  On  the  15th  of  December, 
1901,  the  coinage  law  was  published,  by  which  Corea  adopted  the 
gold  standard ; but  this  law  was  never  put  into  effect.  The  Japa- 
nese have  frequently  endeavored  by  various  means  to  secure  a 
standard  currency. 

Under  the  stimulus  and  pressure  of  foreign  trade,  Corea  has 
now  at  least  nine  ports  open  to  the  residence  and  business  of  for- 


THE  ECONOMIC  CONDITION  OF  COREA. 


465 


eigners  besides  the  three  or  four  inland  places  of  traffic.  Wonsan 
(Gensan),  Fusan,  and  Chemulpo  were  opened  by  the  treaties  of 
1876  and  1882,  and  have  thriving  settlements.  The  ginseng  crop 
exported  from  these  places  is  usually  bought  by  Japanese,  whose 
usual  practice  is  that,  for  example,  of  May,  1902,  when  of  the 
fifty  thousand  catties,  ten  thousand  catties  were  burnt  at  Chemulpo, 
in  order  to  keep  up  the  price.  On  the  1st  of  October,  1898,  Chin- 
nampo  and  Mokpo  were  added  to  the  list  of  open  ports.  The  for- 
mer lies  on  the  northern  shore  of,  Ping-an  inlet,  twenty  miles 
from  the  sea  and  forty  miles  from  Ping-an  city.  It  is  now  a 
thriving  town  with  well  laid-out  streets.  As  the  river  leading  to 
Ping-an  is  for  ten  miles  or  so  below  the  city  not  navigable  even 
by  very  small  sea-going  steamers,  it  can  never  be  “ a port  ” in  the 
ordinary  sense,  but  the  returns  of  its  trade  are  tabulated  with 
those  of  Chinnampo,  its  outlet.  Wiju  (Ai-chiu)  and  Anju  are 
almost  the  only  other  ports  of  value  in  the  province  of  Ping-an. 
Anju  is  the  landing  stage  of  the  American  Mining  Company  for 
its  mining  materials  and  explosives. 

Yongampo  is  in  north  latitude  38°  52'  and  east  longitude 
126°  04'.  When  it  was  opened  in  1898,  Russians  and  Japanese 
took  up  land  so  eagerly  that  a collision  seemed  imminent.  Later 
it  came  very  near  being  made  a Russian  fortress  as  “ Port  Nich- 
olas.” Mokpo,  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Chullado,  is  the  natu- 
ral maritime  outlet  of  “ the  Garden  of  Corea.”  Soon  after  it  was 
made  port  of  entry  and  trade,  the  wisdom  shown  in  its  selection 
was  justified,  for  its  growth  has  been  healthy  and  rapid.  From  this 
point,  in  the  autumn  of  1902,  a Boston  gentleman  went  into  the 
interior  for  a hunting  trip  of  two  months,  during  which  time  he 
killed  three  large  tigers,  besides  deer  and  wild  boar. 

On  May  1,  1899,  Kunsan,  Masampo,  and  Songchin  were  thrown 
open  to  foreign  trade  and  residence.  Kunsan  is  on  the  west  coast, 
and  like  Mokpo,  long  famous  for  its  abundant  export  of  rice  paid  as 
revenue.  It  lies  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  dividing  the  two  rich 
and  warm  provinces  of  Chulla  and  Chung  Chong,  about  half- 
way between  Chemulpo  and  Mokpo,  whence  the  rice,  wheat,  beans, 
hides,  grasscloth.  paper,  manufactured  articles  in  bamboo,  fans, 
screens,  mats,  and  marine  products  of  many  kinds  are  exported. 
Masampo,  a few  miles  to  the  southwest  of  Fusan,  in  north  latitude 
35°  09'  and  east  longitude  128°  40',  has  one  of  the  finest  harbors 


456 


COliEA. 


in  the  world,  which,  when  well  fortified,  might  command  the 
entrance  to  the  Sea  of  Japan.  In  the  negotiations  between  Japan 
and  Russia,  in  1903,  this  spot  was  jealously  coveted  by  both  Pow- 
ers as  the  prize  of  the  future,  as  the  party  possessing  it  might 
make  it  a Dardanelles,  closing  the  sea  between  the  island  empire 
and  the  continent  and  making  this  body  of  water  a Euxine.  Kus- 
sia tried  to  bind  Japan  not  to  fortify  this  or  any  other  place  on 
the  east  coast  of  Corea.  Japanese,  Russians,  Chinese,  and  Coreans 
soon  flocked  to  this  favored  port  and  have  made  business  lively. 
Songchin,  once  the  seat  of  an  old  stronghold,  in  the  large  north- 
eastern province  of  Ham  Iviung,  bordering  on  Kussia,  which  has 
no  long  navigable  rivers,  as  in  the  south,  lies  about  120  miles  from 
Wonsan  and  sends  most  of  its  products  thither.  It  has  a poor 
harbor  in  a foggy  region,  but  fertile  soil,  fat  cattle,  and  mineral 
riches  are  within  reach.  The  Customs  Reports  for  1903  show  a 
growing  trade  of  $328,891.  Eleven  other  landing  stages  bring  up 
the  total  value  of  trade  in  Ham  Kiung  province  to  $1,676,714. 
In  1902  the  total  imports  were  nearly  balanced  by  the  exports 
from  all  Corea.  Cotton  is  becoming  an  important  item  of  sale 
abroad.  Gold  in  1902  was  exported  to  the  amount  of  $2,532,053. 
The  total  value  of  foreign  trade  has  doubled  during  the  past  decade. 
So  far  the  steamer  tonnage  is,  like  the  general  foreign  trade,  over 
three-fourths  Japanese.  Most  emphatically  and  luminously  does 
the  modern  economic  as  well  as  political  history  of  the  peninsula 
prove  that  the  best  interests  of  Japan  and  Corea  are  closely  inter- 
woven. Mutual  benefit  follows  unity  and  friendship,  reciprocal 
injury  results  from  estrangement. 

All  these  open  ports  are  the  gateways  of  a commerce  that  must 
steadily  and  healthfully  increase,  and  which  under  stable  and  just 
government  would  rapidly  enlarge.  So  long  as  there  is  uncertainty 
as  to  the  political  status  of  the  Land  of  Morning  Calm,  the  chief 
importance  of  the  maritime  gateways  into  the  country  will  be 
strategic  and  military,  rather  than  commercial.  A permanent  set- 
tlement of  the  political  question,  in  debate  ever  since  the  modern 
renascence  of  Japan,  ought  to  act  on  the  development  of  the  natu- 
ral resources  of  Corea  as  the  warm  spring  rains  act  upon  soil  long 
chilled  and  fallow  under  winter’s  frost.  Few  regions,  whether  we 
consider  its  geographical  location  for  commerce,  the  fertility  of 
its  soil,  its  animal  wealth,  the  richness  of  its  mineral  deposits,  or 


THE  ECONOMIC  CONDITION  OF  COREA. 


457 


the  abundance  of  its  treasures  in  the  sea,  are  more  highly  favored 
than  Corea.  When  man,  society,  and  government  in  the  peninsula 
answer  Nature’s  challenge  and  match  the  opportunity,  the  world 
will  find  that  history’s  storehouse  of  surprises  has  not  been  empty. 
Toward  the  development  of  the  kind  of  man  needed,  the  Chris- 
tian missionaries  are,  above  all  other  teachers  and  forces,  working, 
and  with  every  sign  of  promise. 


CHAPTER  L. 


INTERNAL  POLITICS:  CHINESE  AND  JAPANESE. 

The  preponderating  influence  of  China  was  the  mainspring  in 
the  intricate  machinery  of  old  Corean  politics,  though  within  the 
two  clearly  defined  parties  in  Seoul  there  are  also  factional 
and  family  differences.  “ From  1834  to  1864  the  royal  clan  was 
shorn  of  much  of  its  power,  all  offices  were  in  the  hands  of  the 
Kim  clan,  whose  head,  Kim  Pyong-gi,  was  virtually  ruler  of  the 
land  for  the  years  ending  that  epoch.”  The  Kims  hoped  to  con- 
tinue the  lease  of  their  power,  but  the  Tai-wen  Kun  humbled  this 
clan  and  exalted  his  own,  meanwhile  doing  much  for  the  common 
people  and  compelling  the  yangban  to  bear  a share  of  the  bur- 
dens of  government  in  paying  a house  tax.  In  his  whole  course 
toward  these  predatory  gentry,  he  was  “ a blundering  anticipator  ” 
of  the  great  reforms  of  1894.  He  began  the  suppression  of  the 
Tong-haks.  He  was  a great  builder  of  public  edifices,  not  only  in 
Seoul,  but  in  the  provinces.  He  protected  the  country  against  the 
foreigner.  He  meant  well  in  his  ignorance,  but  he  knew  nothing 
of  the  world  at  large.  His  first  lease  of  power  came  to  an  end 
in  1873. 

The  first  Corean  noblemen,  Kim  and  Pom,  left  their  homes  in 
1875  to  travel  in  lands  beyond  China.  They  went  to  Japan,  and 
coming  back,  boldly  told  the  King  what  they  had  seen  and  advo- 
cated the  adoption  of  Western  civilization.  They  tried  to  win  over 
the  powerful  Min  clan  and  the  Queen  to  a liberal  policy,  but  this 
to  the  Regent,  Tai-wen  Kun,  meant  nothing  else  than  Christian- 
ity and  radical  reform,  which  involved  popular  education.  That 
is  exactly  the  sort  of  reform  that  every  Confucian  mandarin  in  any 
country  of  Asia  hates  most  heartily,  because  he  sees  in  the  general 
enlightenment  of  the  people  the  end  of  the  power  of  the  literati. 
The  bold  and  crafty  statesman,  who,  as  Prince  Parent,  held  his 
son  the  King  as  his  puppet  and  had  already  shed  the  blood  of 
thousands  of  native  Christians,  nearly  succeeded  in  putting  the 
458 


INTERNAL  POLITICS  : CHINESE  AND  JAPANESE.  459 


two  young  champions  of  Western  civilization  to  death.  When  the 
American  treaty  negotiations  were  impending,  the  Min  clansmen 
held  aloof  until  China,  as  represented  by  Li  Hung  Chang,  gave 
the  nod.  Then  they  showed  so  much  energy  in  the  matter  as  to 
seem  to  foreigners  the  party  of  progress.  This  roused  the  wrath 
of  the  Regent,  who  determined  to  crush  the  Min  clan  and  to  nul- 
lify the  treaty.  We  have  seen  how,  in  July,  1882,  by  a masterly 
appeal  to  local  bigotry  and  superstition,  he  directed  the  soldiers’ 
riot  into  a revolt  against  the  pro-Chinese  clan.  After  destroying, 
as  he  imagined,  their  leading  men  and  the  Queen,  he  seized  the 
government  himself,  enjoying  for  a few  days  full  lease  of  power. 

When  the  news  of  the  usurpation  reached  China  and  Japan, 
a fleet  with  soldiers  was  despatched  from  each  country.  The  Chi- 
nese force  landed  first,  marched  to  Seoul,  built  forts  to  command 
the  river  against  the  Japanese,  and  established  their  camp  inside 
the  walls.  By  this  move  China  held  a new  lien  on  her  “ vassal 
state.”  The  Chinese  general  made  his  formal  call  on  the  Tai- 
wen  Kun,  and  when  this  lord  of  the  land  returned  the  courtesy, 
he  was  seized  and  deported  to  China.  Meanwhile  the  Queen,  for 
whom  a palace  maid  had  suffered  vicarious  death,  together  with 
some  of  her  chief  helpers  and  advisers,  re-entered  the  palace  Octo- 
ber 9,  1882.  The  star  of  the  Min  clan  was  again  in  the  ascendant. 

Thus  the  results  of  the  Regent’s  smart  trickery  were  not  pleas- 
ant for  the  Coreans,  for  now  they  had  both  the  Chinese  and  the 
Japanese  soldiers  encamped  in  the  capital  and  on  the  ground 
where  nearly  three  hundred  years  before  they  had  met  in  battle. 
Bj"  good  discipline  on  both  sides,  collision  between  the  soldiers  was 
avoided,  but  the  Government  at  once  made  provision  to  replace  the 
foreign  soldiery  by  native  troops.  Four  battalions  of  Corean  in- 
fantry were  organized  and  put  under  Chinese  drill  masters,  intro- 
duced by  the  Min  leaders.  Fourteen  young  men,  mostly  members 
of  Progressive  families,  were  sent  to  Tokio  to  study  in  the  military 
school. 

The  treaty  negotiated  by  Commodore  Shufeldt  was  promptly 
ratified  by  the  United  States  Senate,  and  on  February  26th  Pres- 
ident Chester  A.  Arthur  sent  in  the  name  of  General  Lucius  H. 
Foote  as  Minister  to  Corea.  Reaching  Chemulpo  May  13th  in 
the  U.S.Ss.  Monocacy,  the  formal  ratifications  of  the  treaty  were 
exchanged  in  the  capital  May  19th.  The  same  cannon,  and  served 


4G0 


COREA. 


by  some  of  the  same  sailors  that  in  1871  had  shelled  the  Han 
forts,1  peacefully  saluted  the  new  national  flag,  emblazoned  with 
the  proofs  of  Corea’s  intellectual  servitude  to  Chinese  philosophy 
and  fantastic  traditions.  Keeping  clear  of  the  native  factions, 
Mr.  Foote  dealt  as  directly  as  possible  with  the  sovereign.  He 
made  an  earnest  plea  for  the  toleration  of  religion,  a promise  to 
proclaim  which  wras  secured  from  the  King. 

The  Corean  Government  responded  to  the  American  courtesy  by 
despatching  a special  mission,  consisting  of  eleven  persons  headed 
by  Min  Yong  Ik,  which  arrived  in  San  Francisco  September  2d. 
President  Arthur  being  then  in  New  York,  these  quaintly  appar- 
elled Oriental  strangers  were  given  audience  in  the  parlor  of  the 
Fifth  Avenue  Hotel.  After  three  months’  stay  in  the  eastern  cities, 
one  part  of  the  embassy,  headed  by  Han  Yong  Sik,  returned  home 
by  way  of  San  Francisco.  A few  days  later,  on  the  U.S.Ss. 
Trenton  (afterward  lost  at  Samoa)  with  Ensign  G.  C.  Foulke 
(afterward  of  the  Doshisha  University,  Kioto)  and  Lieutenant 
J.  G.  Bernadou,  U.S.N.  (afterward  distinguished  in  the  Spanish- 
American  War  of  1898,  on  the  U.S.Ss.  Winslow),  as  naval 
attaches  to  the  American  legation  in  Seoul,  Min  Yong  Ik  and 
two  other  Coreans  returned  home  by  way  of  Europe  and  the  Suez 
Canal. 

On  November  27th,  at  the  Victoria  Hotel  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  I had  the  pleasure  of  spending  an  agreeable  evening 
with  the  three  Corean  gentlemen,  Min  Yong  Ik,  So  Kuang  Pom, 
and  Pien  Su,  the  two  latter  being  able  to  talk  Japanese.2 


1 On  which  tablets  erected  to  the  memory  of  the  slain  have  been  erected  by 
the  Coreans.  See  the  article,  Kang-wha,  by  Rev.  M.  N.  Trollope,  (Corean) 
Asiatic  Society  Transactions,  Vol.  II,  Part  I. 

2 At  that  time  I was  engaged  in  editing  and  annotating  Hamel’s  Narrative, 
which  is  the  first  account  in  any  European  language  of  Corea.  Hamel  and  his 
party  of  Dutchmen  were  shipwrecked  and  spent  fourteen  years  in  Corea  (see 
pp.  167-76).  I have  examined  and  read  several  copies  in  the  original  Dutch 
editions,  printed  in  cheap  pamphlet  form  at  Rotterdam  in  Holland  in  1668,  and 
now  preserved  in  the  Royal  Library  at  The  Hague.  The  full  narrative  in  English 
is  given  in  the  book  Corea  Without  and  Within.  Philadelphia,  1884.  Mr. 
Percival  Lowell,  the  Secretary  of  the  Corean  Special  Mission,  returned  with  Han 
Yong  Sik,  and  as  the  guest  of  the  king  spent  a winter  in  Seoul,  the  literary  fruit 
of  which  is  the  charming  volume  Chosen,  the  Land  of  Morning  Calm,  in  which 
the  proper  names  are  transliterated  according  to  Aston’s  Manual  of  Corean  Geo- 
graphical and  Other  Proper  Names  Romanized.  Yokohama,  1883. 


INTERNAL  POLITICS:  CHINESE  AND  JAPANESE.  461 


Though  many  of  my  questions  were  answered  and  a number  of  sub- 
jects discussed,  nothing  could  be  learned  of  Corean  Christianity, 
or  of  the  relics  or  reminders  of  Hendrik  Hamel  and  his  Dutch- 
men.1 Before  leaving,  Min  Yong  Ik,  like  a true  Corean  gentle- 
man, brought  out  a large  package  of  choicest  ginseng  roots,  with- 
out which  no  well-to-do  native  of  the  Land  of  Morning  Calm 
would  think  of  travelling  abroad.  He  presented  me  with  several 
choice  specimens  of  the  man-shaped  drug,  each  wrapped  up  in  its 
own  “ arms  ” and  “ legs.” 

On  the  same  evening  in  Seoul,  November  27th,  a banquet  was 
spread  in  the  English-language-sehool  building  to  celebrate  the 
signing  on  the  day  before  of  two  treaties,  one  with  Great  Britain 
and  the  other  with  the  German  Empire,  the  negotiator  of  the 
English  treaty  being  Sir  Harry  Parkes.2  The  music  was  furnished 
by  the  band  of  the  German  man-of-war  Leipsic.  Seoul  now  began 
to  be  the  residence  of  foreigners  from  Christendom,  nine  of  whom 
were  already  in  the  city. 

New  Year’s  Day,  January  20,  1884,  dawned  brightly.  The 
little  children  who  during  the  summer  are  “ dressed  in  a hair 
ribbon,”  made  the  streets  brilliant  with  their  bright  clothes  of 
many  colors,  and  the  sky  was  gay  with  kites.  In  the  royal  palace 
audience  was  given  to  the  envoys  of  China,  Japan,  and  the  United 
States.  On  February  28th  the  electric  submarine  cable  between 
Nagasaki  and  Fusan  was  completed  and  messages  from  the  once 
hermit  nation  were  sent  into  the  outside  wrorld.  Han  Yong  Sik 
was  appointed  postmaster  with  power  to  organize  a national  postal 
system,  stamps  for  which  were  engraved  in  Tokio.  From  this 
Japanese  base  of  supplies  many  novelties  from  the  Western  world 
poured  in,  and  the  body  politic,  long  insulated  from  other  nations, 
thrilled  with  new  currents  of  life.  Treaties  were  made  with  Rus- 
sia and  Italy,  June  25th  and  26th.  Later  on,  telegraph  lines  con- 


1 Nevertheless,  in  188C>  there  were  unearthed  in  Seoul  two  Dutch  vases,  as 
described  in  Mr.  Scott's  paper  in  Vol.  NXVIII,  1893-94,  of  the  Transactions  of 
the  North  China  Branch  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  The  figures  of  Dutch 
farm-life  told  their  own  story,  and  the  well-worn  rings  of  the  handles  bore  evi- 
dence of  constant  use  for  years.  Mr.  Scott  suggests  that  the  presence  of  these 
Dutchmen  might  perhaps  explain  the  anomaly  often  noticed  in  Corea — namely, 
blue  eyes  and  fair  hair. 

2 See  his  biography  by  Lane-Poole  and  Dickens,  1894. 


462 


COREA. 


necting  Seoul  with  Peking  and  with  Fusan  were  completed.  The 
year  following  the  arrival  home  of  the  first  Coreans  who  had  gone 
round  the  world  was  a year  of  progress,  such  as  Corea  had  never 
known  before  or  has  known  since. 

Through  the  advice  of  Ensign  Foulke,  several  reformatory 
measures,  political  and  industrial,  were  promulgated.  The  most 
ardent  member  of  the  reform  party,  Pak  Yong  Hio,  being  made 
mayor  of  Seoul,  immediately  set  to  work  at  sanitary  and  municipal 
improvement.  Some  progress  was  made  in  dress  improvement. 
A model  farm,  for  which  California  live  stock  had  been  ordered, 
was  sown  by  American  seeds  liberally  given  in  Washington.  Edi- 
son electric  lights,  American  rifles  and  Gatling  guns,  a powder 
mill,  a mint,  a printing  office  for  the  dissemination  of  useful  lit- 
erature for  the  people,  together  with  Japanese  artisans  to  estab- 
lish or  improve  properties,  paper  factories,  and  other  industries, 
not  excepting  the  fisheries  and  whale  hunting,  gave  indications  of 
the  new  path  of  national  progress  upon  which  Corea  had  entered. 
Altogether  the  early  days  of  1884  were  as  a morning  of  bright 
promise,  for  public  opinion,  so  far  as  it  existed,  that  is,  among 
the  nobles  and  gentry,  seemed  to  be  entirely  in  favor  of  progress. 
The  most  hopeful  felt  that  the  Corean  Government,  having  begun 
to  relay  the  foundations  of  the  kingdom,  would  persevere  and 
possibly  even  excel  Japan. 

On  the  other  hand,  with  the  tide  of  Confucian  bigotry  rising 
and  the  Conservatives  encouraged  by  Chinese  reactionaries  on  the 
soil,  how  could  there  be  any  real  advance?  Yuan,  the  Chinese 
commissioner,  living  at  the  barracks  in  front  of  the  palace,  was 
ceaselessly  active  in  the  interests  of  his  own  Government,  which 
meant  active  support  of  the  Conservative  party  and  opposition  to 
reform.  Over  against  enlightened  liberalism,  several  incidents 
stood  out  in  dark  contrast,  showing  the  inherent  barbarism,  the 
low  state  of  Corean  humanity,  and  the  slight  value  set  on  human 
life.  When  the  Chinese  soldiery  arrived,  they  seized  ten  of  the 
rioters  of  1882,  court-martialled  them,  tied  their  limbs  to  bullocks, 
and  tore  them  to  pieces.  Even  after  these  men  in  office  had  re- 
turned from  civilization  they  had  eight  more  men,  suspected  of 
complicity  with  the  Regent,  executed  by  poison.  Furthermore,  the 
Kwang  Wang  temple  was  built,  devoted  to  the  interests  of  three 
thousand  or  more  sorcerers  and  exorcists  in  Seoul,  who  enjoyed  the 


INTERNAL  POLITICS  : CHINESE  AND  JAPANESE.  463 


direct  patronage  of  the  Queen,  and  sucked  the  vitals  of  the  nation, 
making  respectable  government  impossible. 

The  innovations  effected  by  the  Progressives,  who  thought  that 
they  had  the  King  and  Queen  in  full  sympathy  with  them,  led  them 
to  hope  that  they  would  be  able  soon  to  reorganize  the  Government, 
to  differentiate  the  Court  from  the  Administration,  and  to  make 
Corea  a modern  state.  But  according  to  the  measure  of  their 
success,  so  also  was  the  suspicion  and  hostility  of  the  Conserva- 
tives. Min  Yong  Ik  while  abroad  might  be  a Liberal,  an  indi- 
vidual with  personal  convictions  and  opinions,  but  once  back  in  the 
bosom  of  his  family  and  under  pressure  of  his  clan,  he  lost  inter- 
est in  reform.  The  Progressive  leaders  began  to  look  upon  him 
as  a traitor  to  their  cause.  He  took  his  stand  with  the  Conserva- 
tives and  it  was  soon  evident  that  the  Queen  was  withdrawing  her 
sympathy  and  support  from  the  Liberals,  whose  hopes  seemed 
about  to  be  dashed  to  the  ground.  These  men  therefore  turned 
more  and  more  to  the  Japanese  and  to  their  methods  and  spirit. 
They  saw  the  revenues  for  the  promised  industries  and  enterprise 
diverted  to  warlike  enterprises.  It  looked  as  if  Corea,  as  tributary 
vassal,  was  to  help  China  against  France  in  the  Tonkin  complica- 
tion. Added  to  the  fears  of  the  Liberals  was  the  local  irritation 
caused  by  the  insolent  behavior  of  the  ill-disciplined  native  troops 
who  had  been  recruited  almost  wholly  from  the  peddlers  and  huck- 
sters of  the  country  fairs.  The  peddler’s  guilds  in  Corea  hold  a 
truly  feudal  relation  to  the  Government,  often  preparing  the  roads 
and  escorting  officials  on  their  journeys,  acting  as  detectives,  and 
forming  militia  according  to  the  occasion.  Some  astonishing  proofs 
of  their  power  and  discipline,  especially  in  mountain  regions, 
were  given  by  Min  Yong  Ik  to  Lieutenant  Foulke.  Instead  of 
their  being  independent,  as  they  had  hoped  for  under  the  Amer- 
ican treaty,  it  seemed  to  the  progressive  men  that  the  Chinese  were 
more  than  ever  ruling  their  country,  and  that  the  Mins  were  their 
tools. 

It  was  about  October  25th  that  the  Liberals,  feeling  that  their 
heads  were  likely  to  remain  on  their  shoulders  only  so  long  as  it 
pleased  their  enemies  to  bring  no  charge  against  them,  declared 
to  their  American  friend  that  “ for  the  sake  of  Corea,  about  ten  of 
the  prominent  Conservatives  would  have  to  be  killed.”  They  pro- 
posed to  play  the  same  old  Asiatic  game  of  first  seizing  the  person 


464 


COREA. 


of  the  sovereign  and  then  in  his  name  proclaiming  their  own 
measures  and  reforms.  The  preliminaries  would  be  a fire  and  a 
riot.  Then,  in  the  confusion,  the  man  with  a programme,  know- 
ing just  what  to  do,  would  direct  affairs.  They  believed  that  the 
Powers  would  condone  and  approve  their  action,  make  new  and 
more  favorable  treaties,  and  loan  money  for  national  improvement. 
Though  the  Conservatives  had  at  their  call  a rabble  of  rapacious 
militia  eager  to  try  their  new  tools  of  war  upon  their  hereditary 
enemies,  the  Japanese,  the  Liberals  knew  full  well  the  sterling 
qualities  of  the  little  body  of  Japanese  infantry  then  in  the  cap- 
ital, most  of  whom  were  from  northern  Japan  and  many  of  them 
deer  hunters  and  dead  shots  with  the  rifle.  There  were  fifteen 
hundred  Chinese  soldiers  still  in  camp,  under  Yuan  Shi  Ivai,  then 
the  lieutenant  and  later  the  successor  of  Li  Hung  Chang,  but  the 
Progressive  plotters  in  their  craft  expected  to  secure  the  employ- 
ment of  the  two  hundred  or  more  Japanese  soldiers  for  their  own 
purposes.  The  moment  for  action  seemed  to  be  propitious  for 
early  December.  A Japanese  man-of-war  was  expected  to  arrive 
in  Chemulpo  on  the  5th  or  6th  of  that  month.  China,  pressed  by 
France,  had  withdrawn  half  her  troops.  Japan  with  a view  to 
strengthening  her  influence  in  Corea  had,  a few  days  before,  re- 
mitted $400,000  of  the  indemnity  exacted  for  the  riot  of  1882. 
The  golden  moment  to  strike  off  forever  the  chains  of  political 
slavery  to  China  was  approaching.  The  date  was  set  for  the  7th 
of  December. 

When,  however,  news  arrived  that  the  Japanese  gunboat  had 
broken  down  and  was  delayed  and  it  was  known  that  the  Conserva- 
tives had  got  some  intimation  of  what  was  coming,  it  was  decided 
to  start  the  fire,  the  riot,  the  coup  d’etat  a few  days  earlier.  On 
the  night  of  the  4th  of  December,  Han  Yong  Sik,  the  Postmaster- 
General,  gave  a dinner  at  the  new  post-office,  situated  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  city.  The  guests  were  three  Chinese,  Yuan,  Chin, 
and  Wang,  two  Americans,  General  Foote  and  his  secretary,  Mr. 
Scudder,  the  British  Consul-General,  W.  G.  Aston,  the  German 
Foreign  Adviser,  Von  Mollendorf,  and  a dozen  or  more  Corean  high 
officers,  both  Conservatives  and  Progressives,  Han  Yong  Sik, 
Kim  Ok  Kiun,  Min  Yong  Ik,  Pak  Yong  Hio,  and  So  Kwang  Pom. 
Others  also  were  present.  The  Japanese  minister  was  absent  on 
the  plea  of  ill-health. 


INTERNAL  POLITICS  : CHINESE  AND  JAPANESE.  465 


It  was  noticed  that  Ivim  Ok  Kiun  rose  and  left  the  table  sev- 
eral times,  going  out  into  the  courtyard,  but  nothing  was  thought 
of  this  action.  The  guests  sat  down  at  six.  At  seven  a fire  broke 
out,  a house  just  in  front  of  the  post-office  being  in  flames.  Min 
Yong  Ik,  who  had  charge  of  the  city  fire-brigade,  rose  from  the 
table,  and  calling  on  his  servants  to  follow  him,  passed  out.  As 
he  did  so,  a man  dressed  in  Japanese  clothes  leaped  out  of  the 
shadow  of  the  gateway  and  struck  at  him  fiercely  with  a sword. 
Min  Yong  Ik  fell  heavily,  but  though  wounded  in  head  and  body 
he  recovered  through  the  skilful  surgery  of  Dr.  Horace  N.  Allen. 
The  assassin  escaped,  and  the  Corean  guests,  instead  of  leaving 
by  the  door,  got  away  over  the  back  wall.  Hastening  immediately 
to  the  old  palace,  the  leaders  of  the  conspiracy  reached  the  royal 
presence,  announced  that  the  Chinese  were  coming  to  seize  the 
King’s  person  and  that  he  must  hasten  to  a place  of  safety.  Reach- 
ing the  small  gate  leading  into  the  Kiong-u  Palace,  Kim  Ok  Kiun 
requested  the  King  to  send  to  the  Japanese  minister  for  a body- 
guard, but  his  Majesty  refused.  Thereupon  So  Kwang  Pom  drew 
out  a piece  of  foreign  note-paper  and  a pencil  and  wrote  in  Chi- 
nese the  words  “Let  the  Japanese  minister  come  and  give  me  his 
help.”  1 This  was  despatched  by  a servant. 

When  the  little  company  reached  the  Kiong-u  Palace,  the  King 
was  saluted  by  the  Japanese  minister  and  his  interpreter,  the 
twelve  students  who  had  been  in  Japan,  and  two  hundred  soldiers 
under  Captain  Murakami  drawn  up  in  line,  who  by  some  magic 
were  all  waiting  there.  Here  then  was  the  new  Government,  king, 
army,  and  counsellors.  Word  was  sent  to  three  of  the  Corean 
Liberals  to  come  and  receive  office  under  the  reconstructed  author- 
ity. With  amazing  promptness  they  were  present  within  half  an 
hour.  The  programme  had  thus  far  been  carried  out  with  the 
precision  of  actors  on  a well-regulated  theatrical  stage.  The 
“ summoning  tablet  ” was  sent  early  in  the  morning  by  royal  mes- 
senger to  six  of  the  Conservative  leaders.  Going  to  the  palace  in 
the  expectation  of  losing  their  lives,  they  first  sent  word  to  the 
Chinese  Yuan,  warning  him  of  the  state  of  affairs  and  asking  his 


1 See  the  forthcoming  Korean  History,  by  Homer  B.  Hulbert,  in  the  Korean 
Review  (April,  1904,  p.  180).  This  work  is  a complete  survey  of  the  story  of 
Ch5-sen  from  prehistoric  to  recent  times. 


466 


COREA. 


help.  As  soon  as  they  had  passed  inside  the  palace  gates  their 
heads  were  chopped  off.  The  royal  eunuch  was  put  to  death  in 
spite  of  the  entreaties  and  remonstrances  of  the  King  himself. 
While  the  Japanese  surrounded  the  gates  of  the  palace,  Kim  Ok 
Kiun  gave  passes  to  those  who  were  to  be  allowed  to  go  in  and  out. 
In  the  reconstructed  Government  Yo  Cha  Wun  and  Han  Yong  Sik 
were  prime  ministers,  Pak  Yong  Hio  was  made  General-in-Chief, 
So  Kwang  Pom  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Kim  Ok  Kiun  Minis- 
ter of  Finance,  and  Su  Ja  Pil  Lieutenant-General.  The  young 
men  who  had  studied  in  Tokio  were  also  given  official  positions. 
All  these  proceedings  simply  illustrate  the  Corean  method  of  the 
Opposition’s  moving  a vote  of  censure  of  the  Government. 

The  Chinese  “ resident  ” Yuan  took  no  immediate  action,  but 
the  next  morning,  December  5th,  great  surging  crowds  of  Coreans 
begged  that  he  would  interfere,  because  they  said  the  Japanese 
were  holding  the  King  as  a prisoner  in  his  palace.  Yuan  sent  a 
messenger  to  the  Japanese  minister,  inquiring  why  he  had  sur- 
rounded the  King  with  soldiers  and  killed  the  ministers,  demand- 
ing that  he  immediately  evacuate  the  palace.  After  three  hours 
had  passed,  and  no  answer  coming,  Yuan  moved  with  his  Chinese 
troops  and  the  Corean  military,  making  a force  of  four  or  five 
thousand  men,  toward  the  old  palace.  He  found  the  entrance 
strongly  guarded  with  the  Japanese.  The  battle  which  ensued 
lasted  from  about  3 to  4 p.m.,  several  score  of  the  combat- 
ants being  killed.  As  darkness  drew  near,  the  Japanese  made 
their  way  to  the  northeastern  part  of  the  palace  grounds,  whence 
the  King  escaped  from  them  with  a few  of  the  Progressive  leaders 
and  the  party  of  students.  The  Corean  soldiers  carried  the  King 
to  the  north  temple,  where  he  was  saved,  but  Han  Yong  Sik  and 
seven  of  the  students  were  hacked  to  pieces  by  the  mob.  About 
8 p.m.  Captain  Murakami  led  off  his  soldiers  and  making  a mas- 
terly retreat  reached  the  Japanese  legation  after  forty-eight  hours 
of  absence.  Pak  Yong  Hio,  Kim  Ok  Kiun,  So  Kwang  Pom,  Su 
Ja  Pil,  and  a half  dozen  or  so  of  the  military  students  accom- 
panied the  Japanese. 

All  day  long  on  December  6th.  with  the  cry  of  “ Death  to  the 
Japanese,”  the  Corean  militia  and  the  ruffians  were  let  loose  on  a 
wild  revelry  of  outrage,  butchery,  and  incendiarism.  The  nine 
white  foreigners  in  Seoul,  of  whom  three  were  ladies,  together 


INTERNAL  POLITICS:  CHINESE  AND  JAPANESE.  467 


with  twenty-two  Japanese  who  had  escaped  bullets,  stones,  and 
knives,  found  refuge  in  the  American  legation,  which  was  put  in 
a state  of  defence  by  Lieutenant  Bernadou.  The  twenty  soldiers 
left  behind  in  the  Japanese  legation,  aided  by  a hundred  or  more 
of  their  fellow  refugee  countrymen,  defended  the  walled  enclosure 
from  the  mob.  On  the  afternoon  of  the  7th,  provisions  being 
exhausted,  the  Japanese  with  admirable  coolness,  discipline,  and 
success  began  the  march  to  Chemulpo.  The  women,  children,  and 
refugees  were  put  inside  of  a hollow  square  formed  by  the  soldiers, 
the  legation  buildings  were  fired,  and  despite  hostile  soldiers,  Chi- 
nese and  Corean  with  rifles  and  cannon,  and  armed  men  firing  from 
roof  and  wall,  they  unbarred  the  city  gates  and  with  their  wounded 
crossed  the  river.  Reaching  Chemulpo  on  the  8th,  they  were  fed 
by  the  sailors  on  the  Japanese  man-of-war,  which  had  happily 
arrived.  A Japanese  steamer  carried  the  news  to  Nagasaki. 

The  short-lived  Liberal  Government  came  to  an  end  after 
forty-eight  hours’  existence.  The  conspirators  fled  to  Japan, 
whence  most  of  them  reached  America.  A month  later  Count 
Inouye,  with  a guard  of  six  hundred  troops,  took  up  his  quarters 
outside  the  west  gate  in  Seoul  and  negotiations  were  opened.  On 
January  9th  a convention  was  signed  by  which  the  Corean  Gov- 
ernment agreed  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  six  hundred  thousand  yen, 
and  Herr  Von  Mollendorf  and  Su  Sang  Yu  were  sent  to  Japan 
to  arrange  terms  for  the  renewal  of  friendly  relations.  The  Core- 
ans,  to  show  their  regret,  chopped  up  and  distributed  around  the 
streets  the  flesh  and  bones  of  eleven  human  beings  supposed  to 
have  been  active  in  the  killing  of  defenceless  Japanese  in  Seoul. 
At  Tientsin,  May  7,  1885,  the  Marquis  Ito  and  Li  Hung  Chang 
signed  a convention,  by  which  it  was  agreed  that  the  troops  of  both 
countries  should  be  withdrawn  and  that  neither  government  should 
land  a military  force  in  Corea  without  notifying  the  other.  Early 
in  the  spring  the  Japanese  legation  was  built  at  Corean  expense 
in  Occidental  style,  this  being  the  first  of  the  many  foreign  edi- 
fices which  now  adorn  Seoul.  The  Chinese  and  Japanese  troops 
embarked  for  their  respective  countries  at  Chemulpo  on  the  21st 
of  May.  On  October  5,  1885,  the  Tai-wen  Kun,  fresh  and  rosy 
after  his  sojourn  in  Tientsin,  re-entered  Seoul.  He  was  escorted  by 
Chinese  warriors  and  many  thousands  of  Coreans.  Most  of  his 
immediate  followers  being  dead  or  in  exile,  his  name  was  not  often 


468 


COREA. 


mentioned  during  the  decade  of  years  following.  He  lived  in  com- 
parative seclusion  until  the  outbreak  of  the  Chino-Japanese  war. 

The  Progressives  of  1884  were  in  too  much  of  a hurry.  They 
had  tried  to  hatch  the  egg  of  reform  by  warming  it  in  the  lire. 
The  affair  of  December,  in  its  origin  an  anti-Chinese  uprising  of 
Radicals,  became  at  its  end  an  anti- Japanese  demonstration  in 
which  about  three  hundred  lives  were  lost.  Yet  as  if  to  show  that 
revolutions  never  go  backward,  this  bloody  business  pushed  open 
the  gateway  through  which  science  and  Christianity  entered  to 
hasten  the  exit  of  barbarism.  Dr.  Horace  N.  Allen,  an  American 
missionary  physician,  had  arrived  in  Seoul  in  September,  1884. 
When  called  on  the  night  of  December  4th  to  minister  to  the  Min 
Yong  Ik,  he  found  the  native  doctors  stopping  up  the  sword  wounds 
with  wax.  Dr.  Allen,  by  treating  the  injured  man  in  scientific 
fashion,  saved  his  life.  The  superiority  of  Western  methods  hav- 
ing been  demonstrated,  the  wounded  Chinese  soldiers  and  Coreans, 
with  their  shattered  bones  and  torn  flesh,  over  which  they  had 
plastered  the  reeking  hides  cut  from  living  dogs,  or  had  utilized 
other  appliances  of  helpless  ignorance,  came  to  him  in  crowds. 
Unable  to  attend  to  all  these  sufferers,  application  was  made  for 
a hospital.  The  Government  at  once  set  apart  the  dwelling  occu- 
pied by  Han  Yong  Sik  and,  naming  it  the  House  of  Civilized 
Virtue,  established  April  10,  1885,  a hospital. 

Following  this  event,  American  missionaries  arrived  in  increas- 
ing numbers.  The  Government  engaged  three  American  young 
men,  Messrs.  D.  A.  Bunker,  G.  W.  Gilmore,  and  H.  B.  Hurlbert,  as 
teachers,  who  with  thirty-five  sons  of  noble  families  as  their  pupils 
opened  a school  September  23,  1885.  Missionaries  with  unquench- 
able patience  began  the  instruction  of  a people  much  better  ac- 
quainted with  malevolent  demons  than  with  beneficent  beings  or 
with  one  living  and  true  God,  whose  only  idea  of  sin  is  that  it  is  a 
civil  offence,  and  whose  language  has  no  word  for  the  love  of  a 
superior  to  an  inferior.  In  apathetic  faces  they  were  to  light  the 
fire  of  a new  hope.  To  become  a Christian  in  Corea  means  a com- 
plete revolution  in  a man’s  life,  especially  in  that  of  a yangban, 
who  has  the  intellectual  power  of  a man  with  only  the  actual 
knowledge  of  a child.  Nevertheless,  with  orphanages,  Sunday- 
schools,  Christian  women’s  work  in  the  home,  organized  Christian 
churches,  hospitals,  schools  for  boys  and  girls,  and  a printing 


INTERNAL  POLITICS:  CIIINESE  AND  JAPANESE.  469 


establishment,  most  of  the  forms  of  active  Christianity  were  soon 
visible  in  Corea,  the  country  which,  in  1904,  with  its  tens  of 
thousands  of  believers,  is  the  most  hopeful  of  missionary  fields. 

A treaty  with  France,  negotiated  in  the  summer  of  1886  and 
ratified  May  30,  1887,  enabled  the  French  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries to  come  forth  into  open  day.  They  at  once  made  prepa- 
rations for  the  erection  of  a cathedral,  which,  when  completed  and 
dedicated,  May  29,  1897,  was  the  tallest  and  most  imposing  edifice 
in  the  capital.  It  is  202  feet  long  and  from  60  to  90  feet  wide, 
and  cost  $60,000.  The  French  minister  endeavored  to  secure  the 
same  magisterial  rights  for  the  bishops  and  priests  in  Corea  which 
have  been  long  enjoyed  by  prelates  of  the  Roman  form  of  Chris- 
tianity in  China.  Although  at  first  the  Government  resisted,  yet 
these  claims  have  been  virtually  validated,  and  France  acts  in 
Corea,  as  elsewhere  in  Asia,  as  the  protector  of  Roman  Catholics. 
Much  disquiet  and  local  disorder  in  various  parts  of  the  country, 
especially  in  Quelparte  and  the  provinces  of  Whang  Hai,  may  be 
traced  to  popular  notions  and  the  procedure  of  the  priests  based 
on  this  peculiarity  of  French  foreign  policy. 

Corea  soon  found  that  diplomacy  could  not  be  one-sided.  Hav- 
ing dealings  with  foreign  nations,  it  was  not  sufficient  that  West- 
ern governments  should  have  their  representatives  in  Seoul,, 
while  there  were  no  Corean  legations  or  consulates  abroad.  An. 
episode  arising  from  international  jealousies  soon  caused  this, 
desire  to  take  tangible  form,  despite  active  opposition  from  China. 
On  April  14,  1885,  the  British  Government,  in  view  of  eventual- 
ities with  Russia,  ordered  the  temporary  occupation  of  Port  Ham- 
ilton in  the  Nan  How  group  of  islands,  about  thirty- five  miles  from» 
the  northeastern  end  of  Quelparte.  Corea  at  once  protested  against 
this  seizure  of  territory,  and,  in  spite  of  all  offers  of  gold  for  pur- 
chase, and  all  diplomatic  pressure,  she  secured,  after  voluminous 
correspondence  and  the  assurance  that  Russia  would  not  occupy 
any  part  of  Corea,  the  evacuation  of  Port  Hamilton  by  the  Brit- 
ish. The  flag  of  the  double  cross  was  hauled  down  February  27, 
1887.  At  once  the  Government  at  Seoul  prepared  to  send  embas- 
sies to  Japan,  Europe,  and  the  United  States  to  establish  perma- 
nent legations.  This  plan  was  of  course  opposed  by  Yuan  Shi  Kai, 
the  Chinese  “ resident,”  as  he  called  himself,  in  an  active,  impu- 
dent, and  villainous  manner,  he  acting  at  the  heck  of  his  chief. 


470 


COREA. 


Li  Hung  Chang.  The  right  to  make  a treaty  carries  with  it  the 
right  of  a legation  abroad,  and  the  American  minister,  the  Hon- 
orable Hugh  N.  Densmore,  bv  order  of  the  Government  of  the 
United  States,  invited  the  embassy  to  take  passage  in  the 
U.S.Ss.  Omaha,  which  was  done.  With  his  secretary,  Dr.  H.  N. 
Allen,  Fak  Chung  Wang,  envoy  plenipotentiary,  arrived  in  Wash- 
ington and  had  audience  of  President  Cleveland  in  January,  1888. 
A minister  of  equal  rank  went  also  to  Europe  and  another  to 
Japan.  The  Chinese  “resident”  then  planned,  by  transferring 
his  headquarters  three  miles  from  Seoul,  to  get  all  other  foreigners 
removed  from  Seoul  in  order  to  have  more  power,  but  the  scheme 
was  frustrated  in  good  season. 

The  road  out  of  fetichism,  superstition,  and  ignorance  into 
light  and  civilization  was  not  an  easy  one  and  had  many  a draw- 
back. Until  schools  dispel  ignorance,  and  the  certainties  of  science 
dominate  the  minds  of  the  natives  terrorized  by  superstition, 
Corea,  long  intoxicated  with  sorcery,  will  suffer  from  continual 
attacks  of  the  delirium  tremens  of  paganism.  Even  the  importa- 
tion of  condensed  milk  acted  on  the  diseased  imagination  of  the 
people  to  develop  the  disease.  In  1888  what  is  known  as  the 
“ baby  war  ” agitated  the  people.  The  report  was  spread  abroad 
that  Americans  and  Europeans  were  stealing  children  and  boil- 
ing them  in  kettles  for  food,  and  that  foreigners  caught  women 
and  cut  off  their  breasts.  The  absence  of  cows  led  the  Coreans  to 
believe  that  the  condensed  milk,  so  much  used  among  them,  came 
wholly  from  a human  source.  For  a time  there  was  imminent 
danger  of  an  uprising,  but  a proclamation  from  the  King  couched 
in  strong  language  calmed  the  excitement,  which  gradually  died 
away.  The  local  revolts  against  unjust  taxation  and  dishonest 
officials  occurred  with  the  usual  regularity  of  such  events  in  Corea. 

Provision  was  made  for  a stable  revenue  in  a system  which 
was  organized  under  Herr  Yon  Mollendorf  on  an  independent 
Corean  basis,  but  after  his  dismissal  in  July,  1885,  the  customs 
service  was  put  under  the  management  of  Sir  Robert  Hart,  and 
an  entirely  new  staff  of  men  was  sent  from  China.  Mr.  H.  N. 
Merrill  was  made  chief  commissioner  and  the  three  open  ports 
were  given  in  charge  of  men  directly  from  the  Chinese  customs 
staff,  one  of  the  most  able  and  valuable  among  whom  was  Dr. 
Mc-Leavy  Brown.  Financially  promising  as  this  movement  seemed 


INTERNAL  POLITICS:  CHINESE  AND  JAPANESE.  471 


and  has  proved,  it  gave  China  her  great  prestige  and  furnished 
the  strongest  lever  for  carrying  out  her  ambitious  plans  in  the 
peninsula,  which  some  Coreans  suspected  of  going  even  so  far  as 
to  dethrone  the  King  and  to  set  up  a new  heir — a plot  which  Min 
Yong  Ik  exposed.  Yuan,  the  Chinese  resident,  made  himself  prac- 
tically a Chinese  mayor  of  the  palace.  In  ostentatious  display  of 
gorgeous  costume,  palanquin  and  retinue,  as  he  vibrated  between 
the  royal  residence  and  the  Chinese  legation,  he  and  his  procession 
formed  one  of  the  notable  sights  of  the  Corean  capital.  In  a 
word,  Li  Hung  Chang’s  policy,  working  in  conjunction  with  the 
Mins  at  court,  headed  by  the  Queen,  resulted  in  a vigorous  and 
undisputed  reassertion  of  Chinese  control,  so  that  in  the  emer- 
gency which  was  soon  to  arise,  the  Peking  Government  felt  per- 
fectly safe  in  speaking  of  Corea  as  “ our  tributary  state.”  Appar- 
ently the  influence  of  Japan  had  become  a cipher,  while  that  of 
the  United  States  had  dwindled  into  a merely  academic  theory  of 
Corean  independence.  Potentially  Japan  was  insulted  and  defied 
by  her  old  rival  and  modern  enemy.  To  make  her  grip  on  Corea 
sure,  China  massed  her  forces  on  the  frontier,  bought  large  quan- 
tities of  Xagasaki  coal  for  her  steel-clad  fleet  at  Port  Arthur, 
and  with  her  German-drilled  army  and  great  fortresses  on  the 
promontories  guarding  the  sea-gates  to  the  capital,  she  seemed 
herself  defiantly  ready  to  maintain  her  prestige  regained  in  the 
peninsula  which  she  called  her  “ tributary  state.” 

Thus  stood,  or  rather,  thus  crouched,  in  the  early  days  of  1894, 
the  pigmy,  Corea,  between  the  continental  colossus  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  insular  athlete  on  the  other.  To  add  to  troubles 
imported  from  abroad,  the  long-standing  intestine  disturbances 
again  broke  out  and  the  Tong  Hak  rebellion  culminated  in  civil 
war,  at  the  local  causes  of  which  we  may  now  glance.  This  upris- 
ing of  sectarians  became  not  the  cause,  but  the  occasion  of  the 
clash  between  China  and  Japan,  which  ended  in  the  destruction 
of  China’s  claim  of  suzerainty  over  Corea,  and  the  independence 
of  the  peninsular  state. 


CHAPTER  LI. 

THE  WAR  OF  1894:  COREA  AN  EMPIRE. 

In  Asia  and  in  semi-civilized  states,  as  in  the  old  European 
world,  each  sovereignty  is  a church  nation.  Religion  and  the  state 
are  one.  China,  Corea,  and  Japan,  in  their  normal  oriental  con- 
dition, are  all  acute  illustrations  of  the  evils  of  the  union  of 
church  and  state.  Like  Turkey  and  Russia,  they  are  persecuting 
nations,  allowing  no  freedom  of  conscience  to  the  subject.  Any 
attempt  to  think  differently  from  the  orthodox  and  established 
cult,  or  philosophy,  is  sure  to  call  down  persecution,  torture,  and 
death.  Modern  Japan,  by  ceasing  to  be  oriental  and  adopting 
freedom  of  conscience,  has  simplified  the  relations  between  ruler 
and  ruled.  China  still  persecutes  in  bigotry,  and  during  the  course 
of  her  history  has  shed  more  blood  in  the  name  of  religion  and 
government  than  probably  the  mediaeval  states  of  Europe.1  In 
all  Asiatic  countries  in  which  religious  despotism  still  flourishes, 
practical  Christianity,  especially  that  form  of  it  which  is  founded 
on  the  Bible  in  the  vernacular,  is  the  great  disturbing  force,  even 
as  it  is  the  hope  of  the  future.  It  comes  at  once  into  collision 
with  the  theory  of  the  union  of  Church  and  State.  Giving  the 
common  man  a new  outlook  on  the  universe  makes  him  exactly  the 
kind  of  man  that  despots  and  men  of  privilege  and  prerogative 
most  bitterly  fear,  hate,  and  oppose.  Of  this  truth  Corea  is  a 
striking  illustration. 

The  religious  history  of  the  people  in  the  Corean  peninsula  is 
first  that  of  fetichism  and  shamanism,  then  of  Buddhism,  which 
brought  in  culture  and  made  a nation,  giving  also  to  the  land 
its  permanent  monuments,  its  art,  manners,  and  most  of  its  folk- 
lore and  general  traditions.  In  the  intellectual  clash  which,  in 
every  country  in  eastern  Asia,  has  at  one  time  or  another  taken 

1 See  Sectarianism  and  Religious  Persecution  in  China,  by  J.  J.  de  Groot. 
Amsterdam,  1904. 

472 


THE  WAR  OF  18W : COREA  AN  EMPIRE. 


473 


place  between  Confucianism  and  Buddhism,  Buddhism  remained 
victorious.  Running  a splendid  career  for  over  a thousand  years, 
it  finally  reached  corruption  through  wealth,  worldliness,  and 
political  ambition.  Yet  intrenched  in  office  and  revenue,  it  held 
its  own  until  overthrown  with  the  dynasty  in  1392,  when  Con- 
fucianism, after  a long  struggle,  became  the  state  church  system. 
Buddhism,  left  to  stagnation  and  decay,  and  as  the  religion  of 
the  peasants,  remained  in  a frightfully  corrupt  form,  while  the 
scholars  and  thinking  men  were  almost  wholly  devoted  to  Con- 
fucianism. As  this  system  of  Chinese  ethics  lends  itself  most 
admirably  to  despotism  and  the  continuance  in  power  of  the  priv- 
ileged classes  over  the  masses,  so  also  under  stereotyped  Confucian- 
ism, Corea’s  type  of  civilization,  as  we  see  it  to-day,  seems  to  mean 
for  the  nation  at  large  only  a general  degradation  as  compared 
with  the  splendor  of  the  mediaeval  Buddhist  age.  Allied  with 
Chinese  bigotry  of  race  and  ignorance  of  the  world,  Corean  Con- 
fucianism degenerated  still  further  into  the  savagery  of  conceit, 
of  which  the  Tai-wen  Kun  seemed  an  incarnation,  and  made 
Cho-sen,  as  a body  politic,  a country  eaten  up  with  parasites — 
one-tenth  of  the  population  living  on  the  other  nine-tenths.  In 
the  persecution  of  the  Christian  converts  to  that  form  of  Chris- 
tianity which  entered  in  1777,  Corean  Confucianism  showed  itself 
as  barbarous  and  as  devilish  as  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  or  any- 
thing else  in  history  which  masks  man’s  lower  nature  under  the 
garb  of  noble  pretexts.  Nevertheless,  the  very  patience  of  the 
Christians  under  their  tortures,  the  zeal  and  consecration  of  both 
the  natives  and  their  foreign  priests,  so  impressed  a Corean  scholar 
named  Choi,  that  in  1859  he  set  himself  to  ponder  the  question 
whether,  after  all,  Christianity,  though  foreign,  were  not  the  true 
religion. 

After  severe  sickness  and  a revelation,  as  he  believed,  from 
the  Lord  of  Heaven,  Choi  felt  himself  called  to  found  a new  re- 
ligion. He  proceeded  to  do  so  after  the  time-honored  manner 
most  fashionable  in  China,  Corea,  and  Japan,  where  originality 
is  not  too  common,  that  is,  make  an  eclectic  system.  From  the 
ethics  of  Confucius  and  the  philosophy  of  his  commentators,  from 
the  writings  of  Lao-tsze  and  his  interpreters,  and  from  the  Bud- 
dhist sutras  and  their  accretions,  he  composed  a book  entitled  the 
Great  Holy  Scripture  and  wrote  out  the  brief  prayer  which  his 


474 


COREA. 


followers  still  daily  repeat.  As  Christianity  was  a Western  sect, 
he  gave  to  his  new  religion  the  name  of  Tong  Hak,  Eastern  Doc- 
trine or  Culture.  Many,  perhaps  most,  of  his  followers  laid  their 
emphasis  in  the  new  religion  upon  the  idea  of  maintaining  Orien- 
talism as  against  Occidentalism.  Beginning  in  the  town  of  Kion 
Chiu,  forty-five  miles  north  of  Fusan,  the  movement  spread 
quickly  into  the  provinces  of  Chung  Chong  and  Chullado.  Enter- 
ing the  sphere  of  politics,  it  gave  the  downtrodden  peasants  hope 
and  new  life,  in  the  midst  of  the  awful  night  of  ever-increasing 
official  corruption  and  oppression.  It  was  about  this  time  that 
the  tenure  of  office  by  the  provincial  governors  was  changed  from 
three  years  to  one  year.  This  move,  made  in  the  interests  of  the 
official  class,  vastly  increased  the  burdens  laid  upon  the  people, 
since  the  political  spoilsman,  who  usually  bought  his  office,  having 
now  less  time  wherein  to  recoup  and  fill  his  own  chest,  became 
threefold  more  grasping  than  before. 

The  influence  of  Christianity  is  very  manifest  in  the  history 
of  the  Tong  Haks  and  in  the  literary,  dogmatic,  and  devotional 
manifestations  of  their  leader.  Within  six  years,  under  the  fierce 
initiative  of  the  Tai-wen  Kun,  Choi  and  his  disciples  were  offi- 
cially charged  with  being  “ foreigner  Coreans  ” and  followers  of 
the  Lord  of  Heaven,  that  is,  Roman  Catholic  Christians.  Choi 
was  tried,  tortured,  and  beheaded,  and  his  doctrines  were  outlawed. 
As  with  the  Boxer  and  other  common  delusions  among  the  igno- 
rant, the  Tong  Haks  believed  that  “ by  the  influence  of  their  god 
they  could  dance  the  sword  dance  and  ascend  into  the  air.”  The 
sect  kept  on  spreading  year  after  year,  its  animus  blending  with 
that  spirit  of  revolution  and  resistance  to  intolerable  official  oppres- 
sion then  rampant  in  the  southern  provinces,  the  two  movements 
melted  into  each  other  and  became  one. 

Early  in  1893,  before  the  palace  gate  at  Seoul,  there  was  a 
wonderful  sight.  With  pathetic  ceremonies  and  long  and  patient 
waiting,  fifty  of  Choi’s  followers  presented  a petition  that  their 
founder  be  rehabilitated  and  their  sect  be  tolerated  even  as  the 
Christians  were.  They  intimated  that  if  they  were  kept  under 
ban  they  would  drive  all  aliens  out  of  the  country.  Their  prayer 
for  toleration  was  refused,  and  they  were  driven  away  by  the  pal- 
ace guards.  In  the  springtime  the  Tong  Haks  led  a great  uprising 
of  the  peasantry  in  the  southern  provinces.  The  soldiers  sent  to 


THE  WAR  OF  1894:  COREA  AN  EMPIRE. 


475 


Seoul  to  put  down  the  insurrection  were  scattered  like  chaff  before 
the  wind.  The  insurgents  occupied  the  chief  city  of  Chullado 
and  the  danger  seemed  to  threaten  the  whole  kingdom.  The 
Corean  general,  Hong,  notified  the  Court  of  his  inability  to  cope 
with  the  situation.  Then  the  pro- Chinese  faction  in  Seoul,  insti- 
gated by  Yuan,  applied  to  Peking  asking  for  military  aid  to  put 
down  the  Tong  Hak  rebels.  According  to  the  Li-Ito  convention  of 
May  7,  1885,  neither  China  or  Japan  could  send  soldiers  into 
Corea  without  first  notifying  the  other  Power. 

Meanwhile  Kim  Ok  Kiun  was  in  Japan.  Though  the  Govern- 
ment at  Seoul  repeatedly  demanded  his  extradition  and  both  in 
Corea  and  Japan  assassins  continually  plotted  to  kill  him,  he 
received  the  same  asylum  and  protection  which,  under  the  laws  of 
civilization,  the  Government  in  Tokio  gave  to  all  foreigners. 
Finally,  in  1894  Kim  Ok  Kiun  was  lured  to  Shanghai  by  a false 
telegram  and  a forged  bank-draft.  On  his  arrival  at  the  hotel  he 
was  promptly  murdered.  His  assassin  was  rewarded  with  honor, 
fame,  and  money  from  Seoul,  and  in  China  looked  on  as  a hero. 
With  indecent  haste,  but  following  its  ancient  barbarous  tradi- 
tions, the  Chinese  Government  made  itself  the  express  company 
which  carried  the  victim’s  body  in  a man-of-war  to  Corea,  where 
it  was  cut  to  pieces  and  the  head  and  limbs  exposed  on  the  public 
highway.  This  action  of  China  raised  a storm  of  popular  wrath 
in  Japan,  while  about  the  same  time,  China,  first  on  June  7th 
forwarding  .her  troops  into  Corea,  in  violation  of  the  treaty  of 
1885,  sent  a defiant  insult  to  the  Tokio  Government.  Following 
this  action,  a despatch  was  sent  to  the  Japanese  legation  in  Peking, 
in  which  were  the  words  which  we  italicize : “ It  is  in  harmony 
with  our  constant  practice  to  protect  our  tributary  states  by  send- 
ing our  troops  to  assist  them.  . . . General  Weh  has  been  ordered 
to  proceed  to  Zenra  ...  to  restore  the  peace  of  our  tributary 
state.”  Thus  by  force  of  arms  China  defied  Western  diplomacy, 
and,  trampling  on  the  treaties,  asserted  her  ancient  claims  of 
suzerainty  over  Corea  as  her  vassal  state. 

The  reply  of  the  Tokio  Government  was  the  announcement, 
on  June  12,  1894,  of  the  despatch  of  a body  of  the  Mikado’s  troops 
under  strict  discipline  to  Cho-sen.  On  June  17th  China  was  in- 
vited to  co-operate  with  Japan  in  financial  and  administrative  re- 
forms in  Corea,  in  order  to  preserve  the  peace  of  the  Far  East. 


476 


COREA. 


China  curtly  refusing  this  request,  demanded  the  immediate  re- 
turn to  J apan  of  her  soldiers,  at  the  same  time  ordering  her  Tartar 
forces  in  Manchuria  to  cross  that  ancient  Rubicon  of  eastern  Asia 
— the  Yalu  River.  Chartering  the  British  ship  Kow  Shing,  she 
put  on  board  eleven  hundred  soldiers  with  ammunition  and  artil- 
lery to  reinforce  the  Chinese  camp  at  Asan  in  the  northwest  of 
Chung  Chong  province.  The  reply  from  Tokio  was,  that,  pending 
an  amicable  settlement  of  the  questions  in  dispute,  any  further 
despatch  of  Chinese  troops  into  Corea  would  mean  war. 

As  soon  as  it  was  known  in  Tokio  that  the  Tartar  forces  had 
been  mobilized  and  that  the  Kow  Shing  was  being  loaded,  the 
Japanese  fleet  sailed  and  orders  were  given  to  the  troops,  railways, 
and  steamers  to  be  ready  for  the  embarking  of  an  army.  Within 
twelve  days  a Japanese  army  corps  was  landed  at  Chemulpo, 
marched  to  Seoul,  the  Han  River  bridged  by  pontoons  in  twenty 
minutes,  and  the  military  cordon  around  Seoul  completed.  On  the 
20th  of  July  Yuan  fled  the  Corean  capital,  leaving  his  nationals  to 
shift  for  themselves.  On  the  23d  Mr.  Hoshi  Toru,  envoy  of  the 
Mikado,  with  a military  guard  entered  the  palace  and  demanded 
of  the  King  an  answer  to  the  question  of  Corea’s  independence 
and  willingness  to  stand  by  her  treaty  with  Japan.  The  royal 
answer  was  in  the  affirmative.  The  King  called  in  the  Tai-wen 
Kun  to  allay  his  fears  and  aid  him  in  the  formation  of  a new 
cabinet,  to  which  he  invited,  for  the  most  part,  the  Liberals  exiled 
in  1884.  Prince  Pak  Yong  Hio,  who  had  been  declared  an  arch- 
traitor and  his  house  razed  to  the  ground,  was  again  received  into 
royal  favor. 

On  July  25th  the  Japanese  cruiser  Naniwa,  under  Captain, 
now  Admiral,  Togo,  met  the  Kow  Shing.  After  four  hours  of 
parley  and  refusal  to  surrender,  the  transport  was  sunk  by  the 
guns  of  the  Naniwa.  On  July  29th  and  30th  the  Japanese  met 
the  Chinese  forces  at  Asan,  routed  them  and  occupied  their  strong- 
hold. The  declarations  of  war  between  the  emperors  of  China  and 
Japan,  the  old  rival  Sons  of  Heaven,  were  published  to  the  world 
on  the  same  day,  August  1,  1894.  The  former  was  full  of  arro- 
gance and  ignorance,  the  latter  was  clear  in  phrase  and  temperate 
in  tone.  The  Chinese  lady  then  on  the  throne  called  on  her  sol- 
diers to  “ root  the  pigmies  out  of  their  lair.”  With  the  conceit  and 
stupidity  of  the  giant,  China  went  to  war  against  the  intelligent 


THE  WAR  OF  1894  : COREA  AN  EMPIRE. 


477 


and  splendidly  armed  Jack  of  the  islands.  In  results  it  was  an 
affair  of  Goliath  and  David  over  again.  Ancient  and  overweening 
orthodoxy  met  culture  and  intelligence  in  the  field  and  on  the  wave, 
to  be  confronted  by  what  was  despised  as  too  small  to  do  harm. 
At  bottom  the  Chino- Japanese  war  meant  the  right  of  a nation 
to  change  its  civilization.  Japan,  already  a signatory  to  the  Geneva 
Convention  and  her  officers  trained  in  the  ways  of  civilization, 
even  though  her  people  were  dubbed  heathen  by  some  semi-en- 
lightened  folks  of  the  West,  went  to  war  in  Christian  style.  The 
Japanese  had  a superb  Red  Cross  organization,  a corps  of  sur- 
geons, and  a body  of  fifteen  hundred  trained  nurses,  while  their 
hospitals  were  equipped  according  to  scientific  ideas.  With  each 
army  corps  and  fleet  went  a lawyer  versed  in  international  law, 
to  see  that  nothing  should  be  done  against  the  laws  of  nations. 
The  literary  fruits  of  these  precautions  and  this  loyalty  to  the 
high  standards  of  civilization  are  seen  in  Mr.  Takahashi’s  mas- 
terly work  “International  Law  During  the  Chino- Japanese  War,” 
and  in  Mr.  Ariga’s  “La  guerre  Sino-Japonaise  au  point  de  vue 
du  droit  internationale.”  The  Chinese  had  not  yet  (or  before  the 
year  1904)  recognized  the  laws  of  civilization  and  had  scarcely  the 
beginning  of  hospital  corps,  hospitals,  or  surgeons.  It  was  not 
wonderful,  therefore,  that  her  wounded  usually  crawled  away  to  die 
like  dogs,  or  that  her  ignorant  soldiers  frequently  fired  upon  those 
bringing  succor  to  the  wounded.  The  official  organization  of  the 
Chinese  was  honeycombed  with  corruption,  but  with  their  thirty 
thousand  drilled  troops  and  fleet,  including  battle-ships,  of  which 
the  Japanese  had  none,  they  expected  easy  victory.  Occupying 
Ping-an,  they  built  between  fifty  and  sixty  forts.  At  sea  their 
fleets  were  busy  in  convoying  transports  full  of  soldiers  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Yalu  River  to  prevent  the  Japanese  from  advancing 
beyond  Corea  and  in  the  hope  of  overwhelming  them  at  one  onset. 
On  the  site  of  their  previous  victory  three  centuries  before,  they 
expected  to  rout  the  Japanese  and  then  to  drive  them  southward 
and  out  of  Corea. 

The  Japanese,  centuries  ago,  learned  the  difference  between 
bulk  and  brain,  and  are  but  slightly  overawed  in  the  presence  of 
mere  weight  or  size.  They  knew  that  the  military  reputation  of 
China  only  existed  on  paper,  and  their  excellent  system  of  jiu-jitsu 
had  taught  them  how  to  turn  an  enemy’s  strength  against  him- 


478 


COREA. 


self.  Her  soldiers  had  grown  up  in  the  new  era  of  ideas  which 
had  come  to  fruit  under  Christian  civilization.  Borrowing  these 
ideas  and  forces  and  combining  them  with  their  own  resources  and 
informing  them  with  their  own  genius,  they  gave  the  world  a sur- 
prise. They  had  long  grieved  in  spirit  over  their  non-recognition 
by  the  world  at  large  of  their  peaceful  ambitions  and  of  the  prin- 
ciples that  lie  at  the  basis  of  their  civilization.  They  mourned  that 
war  and  bloodshed  were  necessary  to  impress  the  world  and  secure 
respect.  Within  six  months  they  humbled  China  and  compelled 
her  to  sue  for  peace. 

In  three  divisions,  up  from  the  south,  eastward  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Ta  Tong  River,  and  westward  from  Gensan,  the  three  col- 
umns of  the  Japanese  army  marched  and  met  at  Ping-an  (Ping 
Yang).  After  two  days’  fighting,  September  15th  and  16th,  the 
Chinese  hosts  were  routed.  The  next  day,  at  sea,  off  the  mouth 
of  the  Yalu  River,  the  Chinese  fleet,  in  the  first  great  battle  of 
modern  steel  ships,  was  disabled  and  was  never  afterward  able  to 
resume  the  offensive.  Before  October  1st  Corea  was  entirely 
cleared  of  Chinese.  On  the  continent  of  Asia,  chiefly  in  Man- 
churia, they  held  an  area  larger  than  their  own  empire.  Port 
Arthur  fell  on  November  21st,  and  the  great  fortress  of  Wei-hai- 
wei  was  surrendered  January  31,  1895. 

Then  Russia  unmasked.  Calling  to  her  aid  France  and  Ger- 
many, this  triple  alliance  compelled  Japan  to  give  up  all  claims 
upon  the  continent  and  to  be  content  with  an  indemnity  and  the 
island  of  Formosa.  Had  the  Japanese  possessed  a fleet  of  battle- 
ships, they  would  have  refused  this  insolent  demand  and  declared 
war  on  Russia.  As  it  was,  the  treaty  of  Shimonoseki,  between  Li 
Hung  Chang  and  Ito  and  Mutsu,  was  signed.  The  Japanese 
spent  the  indemnity  money  on  a new  navy  and  proceeded  to  gird 
themselves  for  their  next  war  with  another  giant,  and  to  show 
again  the  difference  between  bulk  and  brain. 

Corea  suffered  surprisingly  little  from  the  presence  of  two 
great  armies  on  her  soil.  Her  people  were  paid  liberally  for  labor 
and  materials  which  they  so  grudgingly  furnished  to  the  Japanese, 
who  were  not,  in  this  instance,  sufferers  on  account  of  their  own 
excess  of  politeness,  while  the  Chinese  troops  were  within  her  bor- 
ders too  short  a time  to  be  a very  heavy  tax.  Only  around  Ping- 
an  was  there  much  public  or  private  suffering. 


TIIE  WAR  OF  1894:  COKEA  AN  EMPIRE. 


479 


In  Seoul,  the  Mikado’s  envoy,  as  early  as  August,  began  to 
insist  upon  a programme  of  reforms,  which,  had  they  been  carried 
out,  would  have  amounted  virtually  to  a new  constitution. 

In  the  reconstruction  of  the  administration  of  the  seven  depart- 
ments, that  of  Public  Works  was  broadened  to  include  Agriculture 
and  Commerce,  and  in  place  of  the  Department  of  Ceremonies 
there  was  created  one  of  Education  co-ordinate  with  the  others. 
A mighty  programme  of  reforms,  twenty-three  in  number,  was  pre- 
pared, but  enough  to  make  up  several  social  tornadoes,  some  of 
which  were  possible,  while  others  seemed  too  radical  and  absurd 
on  their  faces.  A new  mint  began  to  issue  coins  in  European 
form. 

The  second  son  of  the  King  was  sent  to  Tokio  to  bear  the  thanks 
of  the  nation  and  Government  for  having  secured  the  independence 
of  Cho-sen.  The  Corean  sovereign,  on  January  8,  1895,  with  tre- 
mendous picturesqueness  of  procession,  pomp,  and  circumstance, 
proceeded  to  the  temple  of  his  ancestors  and  with  imposing  cere- 
monies solemnly  adjured  all  vassalage  and  dependence  upon  China. 
The  official  name  of  the  new  empire  is  Dai  Han  or  Ta  Han,  that 
is,  the  Great  Plan,  single  and  sovereign,  as  contrasted  with  the 
three  (San  Han)  of  ancient  history.  With  this  royal  act  vanished 
from  history  the  strangest  anomaly  in  diplomacy,  and  one  of  the 
last  of  the  dual  sovereignties  in  Asia.  Furthermore,  from  this 
time  forth,  the  whole  tissue  and  complexion  of  Corean  politics 
altered.  The  native  scholars  began  to  seek  a new  intellectual 
climate  and  the  culture  of  the  West.  Scores  of  students  were 
sent  abroad  and  many  foreigners  were  employed,  as  in  the  new 
Japan  of  1868. 

When,  however,  Count  Inouye,  one  of  the  purest  and  best  states- 
men in  Japan,  in  co-operation  with  the  Reform  Committee  of  the 
Corean  Government  began  his  labors,  the  old  chronic  difficulties 
at  once  presented  themselves  and  in  legions.  There  seemed  to  be 
no  real  patriotism  in  the  country.  Rare  indeed  was  the  native  of 
ability  who  was  not  hopelessly  inoculated  with  the  vices  of  the  old 
clans  and  noble  families,  whose  only  idea  of  the  relation  between 
government  and  office  holders  was  that  of  the  udder  and  the  suck- 
ing pig.  Plots  and  jealousies  continually  hampered  reform.  The 
real  problem  was  to  separate  the  functions  of  the  Court  from  those 
of  the  Government,  which  in  Corea,  as  in  China,  had  never  been 


480 


COllEA. 


fully  done.  In  J apan  the  holding  of  office  by  females  in  the  palace 
had  been  abolished.  In  the  palace  at  Seoul  their  influence  could 
secretly  nullify  public  business.  The  question  of  succession  to  the 
throne  without  Court  intrigue  through  the  influence  of  the  Queen 
and  the  mob  of  palace  underlings,  and  the  reconstruction  of  the 
military  system  and  that  of  civil  and  criminal  law  were  grappled 
with.  Over  one  hundred  young  men  were  sent  to  Japan  to  study. 
On  June  20,  1895,  a royal  ordinance  was  issued  dividing  the  king- 
dom into  thirteen  prefectures,  five  of  the  large  provinces  being 
divided  into  two  parts,  with  151  districts  and  339  magistracies. 
A cabinet,  with  nine  boards  of  administration,  was  organized,  and 
a judiciary  system  for  the  entire  country  formed,  a postal  system 
inaugurated,  and  the  army,  consisting  of  5,000  men,  was  put  under 
the  instruction  of  Japanese  and  American  officers.  For  all  these 
enterprises,  money  was  of  the  first  necessity.  Attempts,  therefore, 
were  made  to  reform  the  revenue,  making  taxes  payable  in  money 
instead  of  in  kind,  while  lands  illegally  seized  were  restored  to 
their  rightful  owners. 

All  seemed  to  promise  well,  notwithstanding  that  many  of  the 
old-style  gentry,  who  saw  in  the  change  a lessening  of  their  income, 
still  opposed  what  they  called  the  “ civilization  nonsense.”  The 
Chinese  merchants  gradually  returned  after  the  war  and  resumed 
business.  Foreign  trade  in  1895  amounted  to  nearly  thirteen 
million  dollars.  Commercial  prosperity  seemed  to  be  general  and 
increasing.  A fitful  insurrection  of  the  Tong  Haks,  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1895,  was  completely  subdued  by  Japanese  troops.  All 
was  proceeding  auspiciously  until  Count  Inouye  left  Corea  for  a 
visit  home.  The  Queen,  who  feared  that  her  father-in-law,  the 
Regent,  might  make  a bad  use  of  the  J apanese  troops,  was  anxious. 
Count  Inouye  assured  her  that  the  Mikado’s  Government  “would 
not  fail  to  protect  the  royal  house  of  Corea.”  Thus  allaying  her 
well-grounded  suspicions,  Count  Inouye  left  Seoul  about  Sep- 
tember 15  th. 

There  were  still  living  in  the  peninsula  the  two  ablest  charac- 
ters, man  and  woman,  in  modern  Corean  history;  the  Queen, 
bound  to  overcome,  and  nullify  by  her  craft  and  the  power  of  the 
Min  clan,  the  reforms  begun  by  the  Japanese,  and  the  old  Regent, 
who  was  bent  on  getting  his  son’s  wife  out  of  the  way,  by  fire, 
sword,  poison,  or  dynamite.  Nominally  about  seventeen  thousand 


THE  WAR  OF  1894 : COREA  AH'  EMPIRE. 


481 


useless  persons  in  Government  employ  and  pay  had  been  discharged, 
and  the  Queen’s  palace  attendants  reduced  from  hundreds  to  a 
dozen.  But  after  Inouye  had  gone  away,  these  parasites  grad- 
ually returned  at  her  invitation,  until  the  palace  was  crowded  again 
as  of  old  with  her  women,  eunuchs,  servants,  and  underlings  of  all 
sorts,  while  her  clansfolk  prepared  for  another  of  those  plots  so 
characteristic  of  unregenerated  Corea.  At  the  signs  of  danger, 
Prince  Pak  Yong  Hio,  minister  of  Home  Affairs,  fled  the  capital. 
It  looked  to  the  J apanese  as  if  all  their  work  and  influence  were  to 
come  to  nothing.  They  had  been  foiled  by  a woman. 

The  Tokio  Government  had  appointed  as  its  envoy,  in  place  of 
Count  Inouye,  a military  officer  named  Miura,  who,  like  the  French 
Zouave  de  Bellonet,  of  whom  we  have  read  before,  brought  to  his 
work  in  Seoul  the  habits  of  the  camp  and  the  methods  of  the  sol- 
dier, rather  than  the  patience,  tact,  and  civil  abilities  of  his  imme- 
diate predecessor.  About  this  time  there  were  in  Seoul  many 
Japanese,  of  all  grades  of  character,  especially  soshi,  political  bul- 
lies or  “ heelers  ” from  Tokio,  angry  at  the  Queen,  who,  as  they 
professed  to  believe,  was  the  friend  of  Russia.  These  men  gathered 
many  other  spirits  like  unto  themselves  from  among  the  native  sol- 
diers who  had  been  discharged  through  the  Queen’s  influence.  Soon 
both  the  native  and  the  foreign  worthies  concluded,  with  the  Tai- 
wen  Kun,  that  for  the  good  of  Corea  the  Queen  would  have  to  be 
killed.  On  the  early  morning  of  October  8th  the  Japanese  troops 
were  conveniently  and  purposely  posted  so  as  to  make  possible  the 
entrance  into  the  palace  of  a motley  band  of  ruffians,  some  sixty  in 
number.  Seizing  the  Queen  in  her  own  apartments,  they  murdered 
her,  dragged  her  corpse  into  one  of  the  areas  outside,  poured 
petroleum  over  the  rice  straw  mats  and  clothing  and  set  the  heap 
on  fire.  Thus  perished  one  of  the  ablest  women  in  Corean  annals. 
A new  Government  was  quickly  formed  under  the  instigation  of 
the  Tai-wen  Kun.  A radical  programme  of  reforms  was  published, 
new  officers  were  appointed  at  home  and  envoys  sent  abroad.  With 
horrible  mockery  of  history  and  justice,  this  “ rebel  cabinet  ” — 
as  the  King  later  stigmatized  it  in  public  documents — pretended 
that  the  Queen  was  alive  and  forthwith  conducted  an  absurd  trav- 
esty of  publicly  trying  some  native  accused  of  her  murder.  In  the 
name  of  his  Majesty  a proclamation  was  forged  degrading  the 
Queen  to  the  level  of  a servant.  All  this  was  done  by  men,  some 


482 


CORICA. 


of  whom,  it  seems  impossible  to  doubt,  were  implicated  in  the 
palace  slaughter.  When  on  November  27th  some  ultra-patriotic 
Coreans,  opposed  to  the  Japanese  and  the  policy  of  the  Tai-wen 
Ivun,  made  an  effort  to  drive  out  their  new  rulers  by  an  attack  on 
the  palace  and  failed,  the  chief  participants,  as  well  as  those  alleged 
on  trumped-up  charges  to  have  been  in  the  affair  of  October  8th, 
were  executed  December  8th.  Meanwhile  there  were  anti- Japanese 
riots  in  many  parts  of  the  country. 

On  hearing  of  the  strange  use  of  the  Mikado’s  soldiery  in 
Seoul,  the  Japanese  Government  promptly  recalled  Miura  and 
arrested  forty-seven  persons  supposed  to  have  taken  part  in  the 
assault  on  the  palace  in  Seoul.  Nevertheless,  in  the  court  at  Hiro- 
shima, technical  evidence  against  them  was  lacking  and  the  whole 
band  of  this  new  I-ro-ha  of  modern  Japanese  heroism  was  dis- 
charged free  of  blame,  or  at  least  without  the  stigma  of  condem- 
nation. It  is  probable  that  the  whole  affair  of  October  8th  was 
connived  at  by  a reckless  diplomatic  blunderer,  to  the  regret  and 
mortification  of  the  Mikado's  ministers  and  the  national  sentiment 
of  Japan.  In  any  event,  it  proved  the  death-blow,  for  a time  at 
least,  of  Japanese  prestige  in  Corea.  In  December  the  troops  of 
Japan  evacuated  the  country. 

This  was  almost  the  last  appearance  in  public  of  “ Yi  Ha- 
eung,  Prince  of  Heung  Song,”  the  Tai-wen  Kun,  or  Prince  Parent. 
He  emerged  fitfully  on  one  occasion  before  the  police  authorities 
to  secure  the  release  of  one  of  his  retainers,  and  then  retired  to 
his  estate  in  Iviodang.  He  died  peacefully,  on  the  22d  of  Febru- 
ary, 1898,  and  was  buried  with  due  ceremonies.  His  mausoleum, 
made  according  to  all  the  proprieties  of  Corean  taste  and  mortuary 
art,  makes  an  attractive  sight  on  the  landscape  of  Corea.  On 
August  18,  1900,  Corea  being  now  an  empire,  he  was  by  imperial 
decree  raised  to  the  rank  of  Wang,  or  King.  He  will  ever  be  re- 
membered by  the  Coreans  as  one  of  the  most  powerful  personalities 
in  the  modern  history  of  their  nation.  According  to  traditional 
usage,  Corean  princes  cannot  hold  office,  and  for  that  reason  many 
of  them  decline  the  title,  in  order  to  avoid  the  poverty  which  accept- 
ance of  it  brings,  and  get  Government  appointments  to  office  with 
salary.  The  Tai-wen  Kun,  born  in  Seoul,  January  22,  1811, 
made  good  use  of  his  opportunity,  which  came  both  with  his  title 
and  his  office.  Besides  doing  a great  many  bad  things,  to  the 


THE  WAR  OF  1894:  COREA  AN  EMPIRE. 


483 


injury  of  his  country,  he  made  some  great  improvements.  He 
was,  according  to  his  lights,  a statesman  and  a patriot,  and  he 
foresaw  to  some  extent  the  designs  of  Russia.  In  methods  he  never 
rose  above  the  atmosphere  of  the  environment  within  which  he 
had  been  educated.  In  person  he  was  five  feet  six  inches  in  height, 
but  looked  a leader  of  men.  He  was  the  great-grandson  of  one 
king,  the  nephew  of  another,  and  the  father  of  a third.  “ He 
became  the  leader  of  the  small  remnant  of  the  imperial  clan  left, 
and  really  preserved  it  from  extinction.”  1 

The  passing  away  of  these  two  eminent  characters,  Queen  Min 
and  Tai-wen  Kun,  marked  the  end  of  an  era. 


1 See  in  the  Korean  Repository  for  July,  1898,  a sketch  of  his  life  by  Rev. 
G.  H.  Jones. 


CHAPTER  LII. 


JAPAN  AND  RUSSIA  IN  CONFLICT. 

From  the  night  of  the  murder  of  his  consort  until  his  escape, 
four  months  later,  to  the  Russian  legation,  the  sovereign  of  Corea 
was  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a prisoner  in  his  own  palace.  Un- 
able to  trust  anybody  and  feeling  in  constant  danger,  he  sought 
the  American  missionaries  for  food,  for  companionship,  and  even 
for  protection.1  To  him  the  new  Government  consisted  of  his 
jailers.  The  Corean  people,  sympathizing  with  their  King,  hated 
the  Japanese  all  the  more,  for  they  felt  that  their  sovereign  was  a 
virtual  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  the  Tai-wen  Kun  and  the  pro- 
Japanese  conspirators.  Under  these  circumstances,  he  determined 
to  break  the  palace  jail.  On  the  morning  of  February  11,  1896. 
according  to  a plan  elaborated  by  the  women  and  arranged  with 
the  Russians,  he  entered  one  of  the  ordinary  box  chairs  in  which 
female  servants  are  carried.  A few  minutes  later,  pale  and 
trembling,  the  King  of  Corea  knocked  at  the  north  gate  of  the  lega- 
tion of  Russia  and  was  promptly  admitted.  It  has  been  insisted 
that  “ no  Russian  had  been  to  the  palace  or  near  it,  nor  had  any 
Russian  been  to  any  of  the  public  offices,”  yet  by  some  curious 
coincidence  the  Russian  legation  guards  had  been  increased  on  the 
evening  of  the  10th  by  nearly  one  hundred  men  from  the  CzaPs 
men-of-war  at  Chemulpo.  Furthermore,  the  Russians  welcomed 
not  only  the  King  but  later  also  the  Crown  Prince  and  the  Queen 
Dowager. 

His  Majesty  was  scarcely  within  the  walls  of  his  new  shelter 
before  he  issued  an  edict  against  his  “ rebel  cabinet,”  ordering  his 
soldiers  to  “ cut  off  their  heads  at  once  and  bring  them,”  but  in  the 
afternoon  another  edict  decreed  that  the  six  traitors  should  be  de- 
graded and  delivered  to  the  courts  for  trial.  This  royal  order  was 
the  signal  for  another  outburst  of  riot,  savagery,  and  bloodshed. 
The  Corean  prime  minister  and  the  Minister  of  Agriculture  were 


1 See  Fifteen  Years  Among  the  Topknots,  by  L.  H.  Underwood  (1904). 
4.84 


JAPAN  AND  RUSSIA  IN  CONFLICT. 


485 


killed  and  their  corpses  mutilated  and  dragged  round  the  streets. 
The  prisons  were  emptied  and  the  innocent  and  guilty  alike  re- 
leased. Sixty-six  Japanese,  mostly  workmen  on  the  telegraphs, 
were  murdered  and  the  line  partially  destroyed. 

The  pro- Japanese  party,  beginning  with  the  bloody  morning 
of  October  8,  1895,  when  Queen  Min  was  murdered,  had  been  in 
power  during  four  months,  during  which  time  a tremendous  blow 
was  dealt  to  the  prestige  of  Japan  in  Corea.  For  eleven  months 
the  King  transacted  the  national  business  in  the  Russian  legation 
buildings,  going  only  occasionally  to  the  palace  to  give  audiences 
to  the  foreign  envoys.  One  of  these  from  the  Mikado  presented  a 
claim  of  indemnity  for  $146,000  for  his  subjects  slain  during  the 
riot. 

The  flight  of  Corea’s  sovereign  was  like  that  pictured  in  the 
proverb  “ from  the  frying  pan  into  the  fire.”  In  fierce  reality,  it 
was  escape  from  bloody  to  inky  tyranny,  from  an  iron  to  a silken 
chain ; but  in  both  cases  it  was  humiliation  and  slavery.  While  the 
guest  of  the  Russians,  the  King  paid  well  his  bill  as  tenant  by  sign- 
ing a concession  to  his  hosts,  permitting  them  to  cut  timber  “ in 
the  Yalu  valley.”  The  Russian  Government  liberally  interpreted 
this  document,  according  to  the  vast  scale  of  Muscovite  geography, 
as  meaning  the  whole  basin  drained  by  the  Yalu  and  its  tributaries, 
that  is,  a region  half  as  large  as  Corea.  The  Russians  thus  ob- 
tained for  a year’s  rent  of  part  of  their  legation  buildings  a lien 
on  Corean  property  valued  at  fifty  millions  of  dollars. 

Revolutions  do  not  go  backward,  and  the  general  proceeding  of 
the  Government  was  along  the  line  of  progress.  The  external  re- 
forms are  particularly  noticeable  in  the  capital,  in  which  Corean 
officers  trained  in  Washington  have  greatly  improved  the  streets, 
the  methods  of  cleaning  and  the  drainage.  The  police  and  soldiery 
were  uniformed  and  disciplined,  and  preparations  made  for  a 
national  census.  The  untrustworthy  “ census  ” of  Seoul  showed  a 
population  of  144,626  in  27,527  houses,  and  in  the  suburbs  75,189 
in  18,093  houses,  or  a total  of  219,815,  and  of  houses  45,350,  in 
which  district  are  36  Buddhist  temples  with  442  priests  and  204 
nuns.  The  original  width  of  the  streets,  as  laid  out  in  1392,  of  55 
feet,  has  been  regained  over  many  miles  of  the  city  thoroughfares. 
Foreign  trade  steadily  increased.  American  capital  and  energy 
helped  to  make  what  was  once  one  of  the  filthiest  and  most  unpro- 


486 


COREA. 


gressive  cities  of  the  Far  East  a clean  and  attractive  place,  bright 
with  electric  lights  and  railway  and  modern  water-works.  A rail- 
road was  built  from  the  seaport  to  the  capital  and  opened  for 
traffic  September  1,  1899.  The  steel  bridge,  made  at  Chattanooga, 
Tenn.,  spanning  the  Han  River  is  nearly  a mile  long.  The  electro- 
liers give  light  to  the  palace  and  to  part  of  the  city  of  Seoul.  The 
trolley  line,  besides  traversing  the  city,  runs  to  the  mausoleum  of 
the  Queen,  which  has  been  built  in  superb  style.  There  her  scant 
remains,  escorted  by  a vast  procession  characterized  in  all  its  feat- 
ures by  the  old  barbaric  grandeur  of  Corea,  were  laid  with  appro- 
priate ceremonies. 

In  the  spring  of  1896  the  Independence  Club,  with  a member- 
ship of  over  2,000,  was  formed.  It  was  composed  entirely  of  natives 
actively  interested  in  social  and  material  development  as  well  as 
in  the  independence  of  Corea.  On  October  21st  the  cornerstone 
of  Independence  Arch  was  laid  on  a site  but  a few  yards  distant 
from  the  old  Chinese  Gate  under  which  the  ambassadors  of  China 
had  for  centuries  received  the  vassalage  of  the  Corean  sovereign. 
It  is  a structure  in  stone,  alike  of  architectural  beauty  and  of 
political  significance.  The  subsequent  history  of  this  club  and  of 
the  general  movement,  in  which  the  publication  of  a daily  news- 
paper in  both  English  and  native  script,  The  Korean  Independ- 
ent, were  prominent  features,  is  not  a happy  one.  It  showed 
clearly  that  independence  or  freedom  must  be  something  more 
than  a word,  in  order  to  bring  forth  the  fruits  seen  in  America 
or  among  the  nations  that  have  most  cultivated  liberty,  safeguarded 
by  law.  In  this  Seoul  movement  the  seed  may  have  been  good, 
but  good  and  well  prepared  soil  did  not  exist.  Rock,  brambles,  and 
the  beaten  road  of  bad  precedent,  in  which  Corea  is  so  rich,  received 
the  sower’s  hopes.  The  movement  ended  in  sedition  or  evaporated. 
Nevertheless,  it  was  vastly  better  than  the  Seoul  mobs  that  so  often 
dictated  imperial  policy  to  the  ministers  of  the  Government.  As 
late  as  May,  1902,  the  former  members  of  the  Independence  Club 
were  being  arrested  and  executed.  More  promising  in  ultimate 
results  was  the  celebration  on  September  2d  of  the  forty-fifth  birth- 
day of  the  King  by  a great  gathering  of  Corean  Christians  in  the 
pavilion  near  the  old  Chinese  Gate. 

After  a stay  of  one  year  and  nine  days,  the  King  left  his  Rus- 
sian quarters  and  took  up  his  residence  in  the  new  palace  of  Kyeng- 


JAPAN  AND  RUSSIA  IN  CONFLICT. 


487 


wun,  built  in  1896  in  the  western  part  of  the  city,  where  are  gath- 
ered the  foreign  legations  and  residences,  some  of  them  very  hand- 
some and  substantial. 

Corea,  being  now  free  and  independent,  between  the  two  great 
empires  of  Japan  and  China,  and  Corean  conceit  of  national  his- 
tory and  antiquity,  real  or  supposed,  being  never  at  any  time  lack- 
ing, it  was  thoroughly  appropriate  and  financially  very  profitable 
for  the  yangban  and  palace  officials  to  take  measures  to  proclaim 
the  once  “ little  outpost  state  ” an  “ empire,”  and  their  sovereign 
an  “ emperor.”  Besides  suffering  from  imperialism  in  an  acute 
form,  the  Corean  office-holders  knew  well  the  significance  of  this 
nominally  political  act,  in  relation  to  their  own  fortunes;  for  in 
the  assumption  of  the  King  of  Corea  of  the  title  of  Emperor, 
$100,000  was  taken  out  of  the  treasury  to  celebrate  the  event,  most 
of  which,  as  a matter  of  course,  went  into  the  pockets  of  the  King’s 
faithful  servants.  His  Majesty  protested  in  vain  against  the  pro- 
ceedings, but  finally  yielded  gracefully.  At  3 a.m.  on  October  12, 
1896,  with  great  pomp  and  state,  before  the  altars  of  the  Spirits 
of  the  Land,  the  King  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Ta  Han, 
or  the  Great  Han — in  distinction  from  the  ancient  San  Han. 
“ The  King  is  dead,  long  live  the  Emperor.” 

This,  too,  was  the  time  of  Russia’s  political  dominance,  when  a 
Russian  military  commission  of  fourteen  were  drilling  the  Corean 
military  and  when  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  at  Seoul  and 
the  Russian  envoy,  Mr.  Speyer,  signed  an  agreement,  November 
5th,  by  which  Dr.  McLeavy  Brown,  the  Englishman  in  charge  of 
the  national  finances — able,  faithful,  and  un terrified — should  be 
ousted  and  a Russian,  Mr.  Kuril  Alexieff,  put  in  his  place.  Mr. 
Brown’s  contract  not  having  expired,  he  refused  to  vacate  his  post, 
and  a large  British  and  Japanese  fleet  having  appeared  off  Che- 
mulpo, he  was  able  to  maintain  his  ground.  The  three  countries, 
Russia,  Great  Britain,  and  Japan,  made  an  agreement  that  Mr. 
Brown  should  remain  in  office  and  that  a Russian  and  a Japanese 
commissioner  of  customs  should  share  in  the  collection  of  foreign 
duties  at  the  ports.  On  December  23,  1897,  a telegram  was  re- 
ceived from  the  Czar  of  Russia  recognizing  the  Emperor  of  Corea, 
whereat  the  imperial  party  in  Seoul  was  greatly  elated.  This 
whole  incident  illustrates  the  rather  theatrical  methods  of  Rus- 
sian diplomacy  in  Corea  during  the  past  twenty  years,  showing 


488 


COREA. 


how  entirely  her  interests  were  military  and  strategic,  but  not 
commercial,  she  having  usually  scarcely  a score,  and  never  at  any 
time  a hundred,  of  subjects  in  the  empire  commercially  engaged, 
and  only  a few  fishermen  who  are  whale  hunters  on  the  coast. 
One  Baron  Guntzburg  was  busy  as  a promoter  of  Russian  inter- 
ests, and  the  wife  of  the  Russian  minister  was  not  inactive  in  social 
affairs  and  even  as  an  influencer  of  political  action. 

It  was  not  long  before  there  were  signs  of  a popular  reaction 
against  Russia.  On  January  22,  1898,  an  attempt  was  made  to 
assassinate  Kim,  the  native  Russian  interpreter.  By  March  10th 
this  feeling  had  taken  form  in  a great  anti-Russian  demonstration, 
which  ended  in  the  apparently  total  though  not  real  withdrawal  of 
Russian  influence  in  the  peninsula.  The  military  commission  soon 
after  departed  and  the  Russo-Corean  Bank  was  closed.  After 
much  excitement,  Russia  and  Japan,  on  April  25th,  agreed  on  a 
modus  vivendi,  both  recognizing  the  sovereignty  of  Corea  and 
engaging  to  refrain  from  direct  interference  in  her  internal  affairs. 
No  military  or  financial  adviser  was  to  be  nominated  without 
mutual  agreement,  and  Russia  bound  herself  not  to  impede  the 
commercial  relations  between  Japan  and  Corea.  It  was  evident 
(probably  in  large  measure  on  account  of  Russia’s  new  interests 
in  Manchuria)  that  she  considered  Corea  for  the  present  beyond 
her  sphere  of  influence.  No  serious  revival  of  the  claims  of  Russia 
to  any  part  of  Corea  were  made  again  openly  until  1903.  When 
the  correspondence  between  Tokio  and  St.  Petersburg,  leading  to 
the  war  of  1904,  opened,  the  ambitions  of  Russia  were  seen  to  be 
serious  and  all-embracing. 

The  first  year  of  the  Corean  empire  was  completed  after  the 
celebration  of  the  King’s  birthday  with  unusual  demonstrations 
of  loyalty.  The  founder’s  day  (that  of  Ki-tsze,  or  Ki-ja,  whose 
tomb  and  temple  are  at  Ping-an  and  which  suffered  during  the 
war  of  1894)  and  the  506th  anniversary  of  the  establishment  of 
the  dynasty,  as  well  as  the  celebration  of  the  coronation,  were 
honored  with  unusual  demonstrations,  including  the  illumina- 
tion of  the  capital.  This  year  was  noted  for  a revival  of  Con- 
fucianism among  the  yangban,  Buddhism  having  already  enjoyed 
a “ recrudescence  ” — both  systems  being  galvanized  into  a simili- 
tude of  life  by  the  powerful  induction,  and  evidences,  both  in 
leaven  and  bloom,  of  the  new  faith.  On  the  whole,  the  year  1898 


JAPAN  AND  RUSSIA  IN  CONFLICT. 


489 


was  characterized  by  an  intense  conservative  reaction  in  the  Gov- 
ernment and  by  an  absence  of  important  diplomatic  or  political 
events,  except  the  chronic  local  rebellions  in  the  provinces  and 
the  plots  of  rivals  and  partisans  in  the  capital.  Notwithstanding 
that  the  solar  calendar  had  been  adopted  in  1895,  and  had  been 
officially  observed,  the  people  still  celebrate  New  Year’s  Day  with 
a fortnight  of  oldtime  rejoicings,  merrymakings,  and  customs 
according  to  the  lunar  calendar. 

The  year  1899  was  one  of  comparative  quiet  in  the  capital  and 
provinces.  During  the  Boxer  agitation  in  China,  there  was  danger 
of  eruptions  across  the  border  which  were  duly  guarded  against, 
and  a Russian  escort  of  fifty  soldiers  to  the  refugee  Danish  mis- 
sionaries from  China  was  given  free  passage.  Corea  virtually 
joined  the  allies  marching  to  Peking,  by  giving  aid  and  comfort 
in  the  form  of  a thousand  bags  of  cleaned  rice,  two  thousand  bags 
of  flour,  and  several  hundred  cases  of  cigarettes. 

In  August,  1899,  the  written  constitution  of  the  kingdom  was 
issued,  the  nine  articles  of  which  declare  the  absolute  power  of 
the  King.  It  cannot  be  said  that  either  the  Coreans,  the  foreign 
diplomatic  corps,  or  the  world  at  large  took  this  giving  of  a con- 
stitution as  a very  serious  matter.  To  the  special  “ imperial  ” 
envoy  despatched  from  Seoul  to  Tokio,  Japan  flatly  refused  to 
promise  the  complete  neutrality  of  Corea.  Nevertheless,  Corean 
subjects  are  expected  to  bow  down  and  worship  (either  in  the  old 
English  sense  of  the  term  or  with  more  profound  significance)  the 
picture  of  the  Emperor  as  in  other  pagan  or  semi-civilized  countries. 
A memorial  tablet  and  pagoda  “ to  commemorate  the  virtues  of  his 
Majesty  ” was  begun — on  a day  significant  in  the  West — April  1, 
1902.  These  will  be  in  the  main  street  at  the  junction  of  Palace 
Street  in  Seoul. 

It  was  noted  as  a great  event  in  the  history  of  a country  that 
has  never  given  very  serious  attention  to  its  high-roads,  that  Dr. 
W.  B.  Magill,  an  American  missionary,  drove  a horse  and  carriage 
from  Gensan  to  Seoul.  A system  of  lighthouses  was  decided  upon 
October  31,  1901. 

The  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  Emperor’s  birthday  was  cele- 
brated December  7th,  silver  commemorative  medals  being  given  to 
each  guest  at  the  palace.  A Corean  band  of  musicians,  trained  by 
Mr.  Franz  Eckhart,  a German,  who  arrived  in  the  country  February 


490 


COREA. 


19,  1901,  played  two  pieces  of  foreign  music  very  creditably  to 
themselves  and  their  instructor.  On  July  1,  1902,  the  Corean 
national  hymn,  an  adaptation  by  Franz  Eckhart,  was  published. 
This  German  musician  had  already  made  a good  record  in  Japan. 

On  May  30,  1902,  the  Emperor  entered  the  Society  of  the  Hall 
of  Aged  Men,  having  completed  the  first  year  of  the  sixth  decade 
of  his  life  (51  years),  the  foreign  representatives  being  entertained 
at  breakfast.  Prominent  among  these,  in  influence  and  ability,  was 
the  American  minister,  Dr.  Horace  Newton  Allen,  born  in  Dela- 
ware, Ohio,  in  1868,  and  resident  in  Corea  since  the  summer  of 
1884,  when  he  introduced  modern  methods  of  healing  and  surgery. 
He  accompanied  the  first  legation  of  Cho-sen  in  Washington. 
There  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  American  legation  in 
Seoul,  and  since  1890  has  been  the  chief  guardian  of  American 
interests  in  Corea,  being  made  minister  in  July,  1896.  During 
the  time  of  the  Boxer  insurrection  in  China,  when  the  movement 
threatened  to  spread  into  Corea,  he  was  especially  alert  in  precau- 
tionary measures  of  safety.  Previous  to  the  outbreak  of  the 
Russo-Japanese  war,  he  secured  the  presence  of  a guard  of  Amer- 
ican marines  in  Seoul  by  which  American  rights,  personal  and 
commercial,  were  thoroughly  secured. 

Events  during  the  year  1903  showed  a steady  movement  toward 
an  inevitable  end  and  pointed  to  the  impending  crisis  between  Rus- 
sia and  Japan.  The  situation  in  Seoul  was  dominated  by  Yi  Yong 
Ik  and  Yi  Keun  Tak,  who  were  in  close  communication  with  Port 
Arthur  and  the  Russian  authorities  at  that  place.  Their  high- 
handed financial  and  other  schemes,  in  opposition  to  the  Japanese 
efforts  at  securing  a stable  currency,  came  to  naught  after  severe 
pecuniary  loss  to  natives  and  foreigners  and  the  serious  disturbance 
of  trade.  The  Russians,  on  April  11,  1901,  had  secured  a twenty- 
year  extension  of  timber  cutting  and  prosecuted  vigorously  their 
advances  in  the  north.  They  now  refused  to  allow  the  Corean 
Government  any  supervision  over  their  work  of  denuding  the  for- 
ests in  the  Yalu  valley.  In  May  one  of  the  Czar’s  gunboats  anch- 
ored in  the  harbor  of  Yongampo,  which  the  Russians  called  Port 
Nicholas,  and  soon  after  began  what  were  believed  to  be  fortifica- 
tions. A guard  of  twenty-six  Russian  marines  reinforced  the  lega- 
tion in  Seoul,  shortly  after  the  violation  by  Russia  of  her  pledge 
to  evacuate  Manchuria.  A serious  riot  in  November  between 


JAPAN  AND  RUSSIA  IN  CONFLICT. 


491 


Nipponese  and  Muscovite  soldiers  at  Chemulpo  foreshadowed  the 
impending  clash  on  a large  scale  in  1904.  During  December 
Russia’s  influence  at  Seoul  blocked  all  attempts  of  the  foreign 
representatives  to  have  Wiju  (Ai-chiu)  opened  as  a port  of 
trade. 

At  this  stage  in  the  nation’s  history,  the  once  white-coated 
hermits  who  had  hitherto  lived  under  their  own  top-knots,  and 
often  under  hats  that  were  as  big  as  a haycock,  began  numerously 
to  go  abroad  as  students.  Scores  of  them  have  been  in  America 
and  Europe  and  hundreds  in  Japan.  In  December,  1902,  a party 
of  nearly  one  hundred  emigrants,  men,  women,  and  children,  started 
for  Hawaii.  All  of  these  were  admitted,  except  eight  who  were 
sent  back  because  of  contagious  eye  disease.  Other  incidents 
showed  healthful  movement  in  a long-stagnant  mass  of  population. 
Light  and  vision  are  coming  to  a people  blind  to  nearly  everything 
modern. 

Of  all  the  moral  and  reformatory  forces  at  work,  that  of  active 
Christianity  leads.  The  missionary  pioneers,  Allen,  Underwood, 
Scranton,  Appenzeller,  Heron,  Gale,  Jones,  Hulbert,  and  others, 
mastered  the  language  and  opened  the  treasures  of  native  litera- 
ture and  history.  Already  the  list  of  aids  to  the  vernacular  and  of 
their  writings  descriptive  of  country  and  people  is  a very  respect- 
able one.  These  works,  the  fruit  of  earnest  toil,  contrast  superbly 
in  the  quality  of  truthfulness  with  the  sketchy  and  ephemeral  writ- 
ings of  tourists  and  hasty  travellers.  With  other  scholars  and  civil 
servants  of  various  governments,  they  sustain  the  editor  in  fur- 
nishing the  richly  freighted  pages  of  the  Korea  Review,  and  have 
formed  the  Korea  Branch  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  from  which 
already  several  creditable  volumes  of  “ Transactions  ” have  ap- 
peared to  delight  the  serious  student,  who  values  perspective  and 
tone  in  his  mind-pictures  of  this  once  hermit  nation. 

Already  the  representatives  of  the  Christian  brotherhoods  of 
English-speaking  peoples  have  their  row  of  graves  in  which  sleep 
heroes,  veterans,  and  some  who  “ fell  at  the  first  fire.”  Beginning 
in  1884,  their  prospective  celebration  of  a double  decennial,  in 
September,  1904,  was  postponed  under  the  clouds  of  war.  Besides 
healing  and  helping,  translating  the  Scriptures,  and  teaching  the 
great  uplifting  truths  which  centre  around  the  idea  of  one  living 
and  true  God,  gathering  thousands  of  souls  into  churches  and  fur- 


49*2 


COREA. 


nishing  Gospel  nurture,  they  have  taught  the  natives  the  grand 
lesson  of  self-support  and  self-propagation  through  a first-hand 
knowledge  of  the  Bible.  War,  persecution,  and  manifold  trials 
have  tested  and  proved  the  quality  of  the  converts,  who  in  sincerity 
and  power  to  stand  in  the  midst  of  temptations  are  perhaps  second 
to  none  in  any  field. 

It  was  evident  at  the  opening  of  the  year  1904  that  Japanese 
armies  were  once  again  to  tread  the  soil  of  Corea,  this  time  the 
war  being  not  between  China  and  Japan,  but  between  Japan  and 
Russia.  Against  the  Colossus  of  the  North  and  Russian  rapacity, 
the  Island  Empire  had  a long  list  of  grievances.  As  far  back  as 
1S61  a Russian  man-of-war  had.  not  without  shedding  the  blood 
of  its  defenders,  landed  marines  on  the  Island  of  Tsushima.  There 
they  had  planted  seed  and  begun  the  formation  of  a settlement 
looking  to  permanent  occupation.  In  those  days  of  hermitage, 
weakness,  and  fear,  nothing  could  be  done  by  the  Japanese  author- 
ities at  Yedo ; but  Katsu  Awa.  the  Shogun’s  most  far-seeing  states- 
man. called  the  attention  of  the  British  minister  at  Peking  to 
this  invasion,  and  a British  naval  force  was  sent  to  compel  the 
Russians  to  retire.  A few  years  later  Russia  took  possession  of 
Saghalien.  after  the  usual  preliminary  of  “ joint  occupation,”  com- 
pelling the  Japanese  to  be  satisfied  with  the  Kurile  Islands  below 
50°  56'  of  north  latitude.  This  was  in  the  year  1875,  but  long 
before  that.  Japanese  statesmen,  especially  Okubo.  had  penetrated 
the  designs  of  Russia.  The  formation,  out  of  feudal  elements,  of 
her  national  army  in  1871  and  the  first  of  this  character  since  the 
twelfth  century,  was  largely  with  a view  of  defending  Japan  against 
Russian  and  other  aggressions.  On  the  return  of  the  Japanese 
embassy  from  its  trip  round  the  world  in  1873,  Okubo,  Kido,  and 
others  opposed  the  Corean  war  project  (as  we  have  seen  in  Chap- 
ter XLYII),  because  a war  with  Corea  then  meant  playing  into 
Russia’s  hands.  Something  of  the  popular  fear  of  Russia  over 
the  Japanese  nation,  which  hung  like  an  advancing  black  cloud, 
was  seen  in  the  attack  by  a fanatical  policeman  on  the  Crown 
Prince,  now  the  Czar  of  Russia,  during  his  visit  to  Japan  in  1891, 
but  the  Government  in  Tokio,  even  in  the  person  of  the  Mikado, 
besides  making  ample  apology,  scrupulously  maintained  propriety 
in  all  dealings  with  Russia,  at  home  and  in  Corea,  living  on  terms 
of  perfect  friendship.  It  was  therefore  a stunning  disappoint- 


JAPAN  AND  RUSSIA  IN  CONFLICT. 


493 


ment,  though  a not  wholly  unexpected  procedure,  when  Russia,  in 
1895,  summoning  to  her  aid  the  French  and  Germans,  deprived 
the  Japanese  of  the  fruits  of  their  victories  in  the  war  with  China, 
by  compelling  the  islanders  to  relinquish  all  territory  on  the  main- 
land of  Asia,  and  to  be  content  with  Formosa  and  an  indemnity. 
Exhausted  as  they  were  by  the  war  with  China,  yet  had  the  Japa- 
nese been  possessed  of  five  battle-ships,  they  would  have  declared 
war  upon  Russia  as  an  abominable  intermeddler  and  aggressor. 
The  force  of  circumstances  required  them  to  swallow  their  humili- 
ation, but  as  the  Japanese,  any  more  than  certain  Christian 
nations,  never  forgive  an  injury,  they  began  immediately  to  gird 
themselves  for  the  coming  and  inevitable  struggle  with  the  Power 
that  seemed  bent  upon  their  destruction.  When  the  Boxer  upris- 
ing in  1899  called  forth  the  military  energies  of  eight  nations,  the 
Japanese  Government  at  first  held  back,  lest  its  motives  in  being 
too  forward  might  be  questioned.  When  finally  urged  to  lead  the 
van  of  the  allied  armies  of  rescue,  Japan  sent  21,000  of  her  ablest 
and  best  equipped  soldiers  into  the  campaign.  Their  experiences 
on  the  march  to  Peking  were  invaluable  to  the  Japanese,  for 
through  becoming  comrades  with  the  mujiks  in  the  camps  and  on 
the  battle-field,  they  learned  that  they  had  nothing  to  fear  from 
such  foes  when  arrayed  against  them  in  anything  like  an  equality 
of  numbers  in  war.  The  Japanese  officer  found  himself  a modern 
man  in  the  presence  of  his  equals,  who  were  men  steeped  in 
mediaeval  methods  of  thought. 

Steadily  enlarging  their  navy  and  perfecting  in  every  detail 
arms,  ammunition,  field  equipment,  army  hygiene,  and  the  physical 
development  of  their  soldiers,  the  Japanese  determined  to  stand 
for  their  rights,  even  though  this  might  seem  like  Jack  challeng- 
ing the  giant.  Xo  longer  hermits  on  an  island,  which,  having 
but  a small  fraction  of  arable  fertile  soil,  could  not  feed  its  in- 
habitants, so  that  population  had  to  remain  stationary,  the  Japa- 
nese had  become  a nation  of  traders  and  manufacturers,  with  an 
annual  increase  of  population  of  over  500,000  a year,  with  a total 
population  of  fifty  millions,  and  with  a foreign  trade  that  had 
increased  543  per  cent  since  1890,  with  a total  export  trade  con- 
sisting of  84.6  per  cent  of  manufactured  articles.  With  nearly 
thirty’  thousand  Japanese  subjects  in  Corea,  most  of  them  married 
and  with  homes,  and  with  10,000  of  their  people  in  Manchuria, 


494 


COREA. 


they  took  an  interest  in  the  affairs  of  Corea  and  Manchuria  which 
was  not  like  that  of  the  Russians,  chiefly  military  and  strategic, 
but  which,  on  the  contrary,  was  commercial  and  vital.  During  the 
Boxer  troubles,  Russia  sent  a large  army  into  Manchuria  and 
finally  took  possession  of  the  whole  of  that  portion  of  the  Chinese 
Empire.  She  promised  solemnly  to  all  the  governments  interested, 
to  vacate  the  country  on  the  9th  of  October,  1903. 

The  world  knows  how  this  promise  was  broken.  The  corre- 
spondence between  Tokio  and  St.  Petersburg  reveals  the  exasperat- 
ing delays  of  the  Russian  Government,  and  its  intention  not  only  to 
remain  permanently  in  Manchuria  but  to  prevent  if  possible  Japan 
from  having  anything  to  do  with  the  matter.  Russia  even  desired 
“recognition  by  Japan  that  Manchuria  is  outside  her  sphere  of 
special  interest  ” and  requested  a mutual  engagement  to  establish 
“ a neutral  zone  on  the  Corea-Manchuria  frontier,  extending  fifty 
kilometers  each  side  into  which  neutral  zone  neither  of  the  con- 
tracting parties  shall  introduce  troops  without  the  consent  of  the 
other,”  and  “ the  engagement  on  the  part  of  J apan  not  to  under- 
take on  the  coast  of  Corea  any  military  works  capable  of  menacing 
the  freedom  of  navigation  in  the  straits  of  Corea.” 

In  a word,  what  Japan  claimed  is,  that  “Japan  has  a perfect 
right  to  demand  that  the  independence  and  territorial  integrity  of 
China  shall  be  respected  and  the  rights  and  interests  of  Japan  in 
that  region  shall  be  formally  guaranteed.” 

After  innumerable  delays  and  the  situation  growing  more  seri- 
ous every  day,  the  Russians  continually  reinforcing  their  naval 
and  military  forces  in  the  far  East,  Mr.  Kurino,  the  Mikado’s 
minister  to  St.  Petersburg,  having  waited  for  an  answer  since  the 
13th  of  January,  called  on  Count  Lamsdorff  at  8 p.m.  February 
4th  for  a definite  reply,  which  was  not  forthcoming.  Finding 
that  in  all  probability  there  would  be  no  changes  in  Russia’s  claims 
of  control  over  Manchuria  and  her  demand  for  “ a buffer  region 
between  confines  of  direct  influence  and  action  of  the  two  coun- 
tries in  the  far  East,”  being  out  of  the  question,  the  Japanese 
legation  was  on  the  10th  of  February  withdrawn  from  St.  Peters- 
burg and  war  began. 

The  Russians  were  already  on  Corean  soil  with  three  hundred 
Cossacks  guarding  their  timber  cutters  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Yalu  River.  Since  June,  1903,  they  had  reinforced  their  army 


JAPAN  AND  RUSSIA  IN  CONFLICT. 


495 


with  40,000  men  and  their  navy  with  26  vessels,  ranging  from 
battle-ship  to  torpedo  boat,  thus  adding  83,000  tons  to  their  sea 
power.  Five  days  before,  the  Russian  commander  at  Vladivostok 
had  notified  the  Japanese  commercial  agent  that  a state  of  siege 
might  be  declared  at  any  moment.  With  steam  up,  decks  cleared 
for  action,  and  search-lights  in  use  for  night  work,  the  Russian 
seamen  instantly  replied  to  the  fire  and  torpedoes  of  Admiral 
Togo’s  attack.  The  Japanese  thus  anticipated  a naval  raid  from 
the  Russians,  which  was  afterwards  successfully  carried  out  from 
Vladivostok.  To  the  Czar’s  advisers  in  Europe  actual  war  may 
have  come  as  a surprise.  It  did  not  come  thus  to  his  servants  in 
the  far  East.  Nevertheless,  within  three  days  after  the  rupture  of 
peaceful  relations  the  Russian  war  ships  Variag  and  Koreetz  had 
been  sunk  outside  of  the  harbor  of  Chemulpo  by  the  guns  of  Admiral 
Uriu  and  an  army  landed  to  begin  its  march  northward.  At 
Port  Arthur  three  battle-ships  and  four  cruisers  had  been  sunk 
or  damaged  by  Admiral  Togo’s  torpedoes.  The  first  idea  of  the 
Japanese  was  to  eliminate  the  sea  power  of  Russia  from  the  scene 
of  the  seat  of  war.  Landing  her  armies  in  Corea,  at  Chemulpo,  the 
march  was  made  without  serious  opposition,  until  near  Wiju,  the 
Mikado’s  hosts  once  more  stood  on  the  banks  of  the  Yalu,  the  Rubi- 
con of  eastern  Asia,  confronting  the  forces  of  the  White  Czar. 

Meanwhile,  a new  protocol  between  Japan  and  Corea  was 
signed,  in  March,  1904,  in  which  the  stronger  Power  bound  itself 
to  reform  the  weaker  country  without  annexing  it  and  to  protect 
it  without  impairing  its  sovereignty.  Corea  pledged  herself,  as 
distinctly  under  Japan’s  protection,  to  repose  confidence  in  and  to 
accept  advice  from  the  Japanese  Government,  and  to  make  no 
agreement  with  a third  Power  which  might  seem  to  contravene  the 
principles  of  the  protocol.  This  document  made  Japan  the  cham- 
pion of  Corean  independence,  and  is  in  spirit  and  letter  the 
antipodes  of  Russia’s  action  in  Manchuria. 

The  new  model  army  in  Asia,  and  the  most  modern  of  all 
armies,  was  in  its  fitness  of  body  and  mind  to  cope  with  the  prob- 
lems of  war  in  the  twentieth  century,  the  creation  of  the  public 
schools  of  Japan.  These  soldiers,  both  veterans  and  youth,  set  a 
new  standard  of  resourceful  valor,  celerity  of  movement,  temper- 
ance in  living,  ability  to  endure  hunger  and  hardship,  and  of  self- 
abnegation  in  the  presence  of  death.  To  a Japanese  patriot,  life, 


496 


COREA. 


apart  from  duty,  has  no  value.  On  the  1st  of  May,  this  “ public 
school  army,”  under  Kuroki,  having  crossed  the  Aalu  under  fire, 
won  a brilliant  victory,  capturing  many  guns  and  prisoners.  They 
had  met  European  troops  and  beaten  them  in  fair  fight. 

Then  began  the  Japanese  march  through  the  old  Border  Gate 
and  Feng-Wang  Chang  or  Phoenix  Castle,  and  over  the  mountain 
range  dividing  the  Yalu  from  the  Liao  valley.  The  fortified 
passes  were  one  after  the  other  carried  in  victorious  assault,  and 
in  the  early  days  of  September  both  Russian  and  Japanese  main 
armies  were  marshalled  before  Liao  Yang  city,  southwest  of  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  Corean  stronghold,  for  one  of  the  great 
decisive  battles  of  modern  times  and  perhaps  of  human  history. 

During  this  time  other  armies  were  landed  in  Manchuria  and 
by  May  15th  Oku  was  in  possession  of  the  railway  leading  to 
Port  Arthur.  Dalny  was  occupied  May  26th,  and  later  Yinkow 
and  Niu  Chwang  came  under  the  sun  banner.  On  August  25th 
Field-Marshal  Oyama  took  command  of  all  the  Japanese  forces 
and  the  armies  of  Kuroki,  Nodzu,  and  Oku. 

After  the  great  pitched  battle  in  the  early  days  of  September, 
the  Mikado’s  flag  floated  over  Liao  Yang,  and  Kuropatkin  fell 
back  on  Mukden,  in  masterly  retreat. 

From  Port  Arthur,  girdled  by  a wall  of  fire  and  under  a rain 
of  shells,  the  Czar’s  battle-ships  and  cruisers  made  desperate  efforts 
to  escape,  only  to  be  sunk,  driven  back,  or,  torn  and  riven,  to  seek 
shelter  in  the  ports  of  China,  and  elsewhere,  their  presence  giving 
rise  to  perplexing  questions  in  international  diplomacy. 

As  we  close  again,  in  the  autumn  of  a.d.  1904,  our  story  of 
the  once  “hermit  nation,”  the  Japanese,  confronted  with  the  prac- 
tical difficulties  of  assuming  a real  protectorate  over  Corea,  while 
nominally  but  sincerely  striving  to  maintain  her  independence,  are 
still  determined  to  control  the  peninsula  as  a vital  possession. 
One  hundred  miles  of  the  Seoul-Fusal  railway  are  in  operation. 
The  sound  of  the  blasting  night  and  day  in  the  deep  rock-cuts 
near  Seoul  announce  their  purpose  to  finish  speedily  a highway  of 
steel  to  the  Chinese  frontier.  The  real  purpose  of  the  war  is  the 
integrity  of  China,  upon  which  depends  the  safety  of  Japan,  per- 
haps even  the  political  salvation  of  Asia. 


CHAPTER  LIII. 


COREA  A JAPANESE  PROTECTORATE. 

Hating  been  responsible  for  two  great  foreign  wars  fought  by 
Japan,  it  was  natural  that  at  the  end  of  each  campaign  the  position 
of  Corea  among  nations  should  be  notably  altered.  The  war  with  the 
Middle  Kingdom  blew  to  pieces  the  Chinese  doctrine  of  universal 
sovereignty,  besides  making  the  once  vassal  state  independent. 
In  name,  at  least,  Corea  was  made  an  empire.  The  war  with 
Russia  annihilated  the  dogma  so  long  held  in  Europe,  that  Asiatic 
nations  exist  for  conquest  and  spoliation,  with  the  corollary  that 
“the  break-up  of  China”  was  imminent.  Japanese  success  in  the 
war  of  1894-95  was  a vindication  of  the  American  doctrine  as 
expounded  by  men  from  the  United  States  during  a century,  and 
formulated  by  John  Hay — “ China  for  the  Chinese.” 

Had  Corea  been  a state  fitted,  by  the  power  of  unselfish  patriot- 
ism and  love  of  industry  among  her  leaders,  to  survive  amid  mod- 
ern political  and  economic  conditions,  Japan’s  triumph  over  Russia 
would  have  made  her  all  the  stronger.  Her  independence  would 
have  been  assured,  had  the  virtue  of  her  own  sons  responded  to 
the  opportunity. 

On  the  contrary,  the  history  of  Corea  since  1866,  as  outlined 
on  these  pages,  reveals  the  fatal  weakness  of  the  ruling  class  in 
Corea.  Instead  of  giving  themselves  to  patriotic  sacrifice  and 
personal  industry,  the  yang-ban,  or  men  of  privilege,  have  made 
their  capital  a hot-bed  of  intrigue  and  Corea  the  storm  centre  of 
the  Far  East.  Instead  of  developing  their  own  strength  and  the 
nation’s  resources,  they  have  plied  the  arts  of  cunning  and  the 
crafts  of  the  weak.  Yet  modern  civilization,  rich  in  powerful 
governments,  has  no  place  for  the  weak.  Least  of  all  is  self- 
chosen  weakness  allowable. 

Being  neither  skilful  merchants  like  the  Chinese,  nor  brave 
warriors  like  the  Japanese,  the  Corean  noblemen — on  whom  lies 

497 


498 


COREA. 


the  burden  of  responsibility — might  at  least  have  imitated  the 
good  example  of  their  island  neighbors.  In  Japan  the  outstand- 
ing event  of  modern  times  was  the  renunciation,  in  1871,  by 
400,000  knights  or  gentry,  of  their  hereditary  pensions  paid  out  of 
the  public  treasury.1  After  this  sacrifice,  made  in  the  interests  of 
true  patriotism,  they  put  off  their  swords  and  silk  petticoats,  got 
to  work,  paid  taxes,  and  began  to  earn  an  honest  living.  Even 
China  has  broken  with  her  unsocial  past  and  conceit  of  perfection, 
and  has  entered  upon  the  path  of  modern  civilization. 

The  Corean  yang-ban  abused  their  independence  by  intrigue. 
They  failed  to  discern  that  the  petty  arts  of  the  plotter  endangered 
their  existence  as  a nation.  After  her  second  great  war,  Japan 
saw  clearly  that  to  allow  her  neighbor  state,  wherein  there  was  no 
sharp  distinction  between  the  Court  and  the  Government,  to 
remain,  as  of  old,  the  hot-bed  of  intrigue,  would  jeopard  her  own 
existence.  She  therefore  did  for  Corea  what  Great  Britain  has 
done  for  Egypt,  the  United  States  for  Cuba,  and  the  French  for 
Annam.  Corea  is  now  numbered  among  protectorates. 

When  our  narrative  closed  in  September,  1904,  the  Japanese 
were  building  a trunk  line  of  railroad,  nearly  six  hundred  miles 
long,  which  should  traverse  the  whole  peninsula  from  Fusan  to 
Wiju  (Ai-chiu,  pp.  181,  364).  Port  Arthur  had  not  surrendered. 
The  real  goal  of  the  Japanese  armies,  the  city  of  Mukden,  con- 
taining the  mausoleums  of  the  Manchiu  dynasty  now  ruling  in 
Peking,  “the  possession  of  which  would  put  the  heart  of  China  in 
the  palm  of  Japan’s  hand,”  was  yet  unreached.  Yet  those  who 
in  the  early  seventies  had  helped  to  train  the  boys  who  made  the 
public-school  army  of  Japan,  had  no  fear  of  its  ultimate  triumph.1 

On  the  3d  of  January,  1905,  Port  Arthur  was  formally  surren- 
dered, and  its  evacuation  completed  January  7th.  The  main 
Japanese  army  fronting  Mukden  was  quickly  reenforced  by  Yogi’s 
division  on  the  left,  or  west,  and  by  Kawamura’s  army,  out  of 
Corea,  on  the  right,  or  east.  The  great  campaign  of  hard  fighting, 
destined  to  last  nearly  a month,  opened  amid  a snow-storm  on  the 
23d  of  February.  By  the  28th  the  fighting  was  general  along  the 
whole  front  of  nearly  one  hundred  miles.  On  the  10th  of  March 

1 See  “The  Mikado’s  Empire,”  pp.  533-535,  and  p.  682,  of  the  eleventh  edi- 
tion, 1906,  for  the  five  points  of  prediction  made  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  February 
8,  1904. 


COREA  A JAPANESE  PROTECTORATE. 


499 


Oku’s  columns  entered,  by  the  southern  gate,  the  city  of  Mukden. 
The  Russians  lost  nearly  thirty  thousand  in  dead  and  over  forty 
thousand  prisoners.  The  Japanese  pursuit  northward  lasted  until 
April  14th. 

On  the  27th  and  28th  of  March  “ the  battle  of  The  Sea  of 
Japan  ” took  place,  in  which  the  Russian  armada  of  thirty-eight 
modern  ships  of  war  was,  “ by  the  grace  of  Heaven  and  the  help  of 
the  gods,”  annihilated. 

By  invitation  of  President  Roosevelt,  the  envoys  of  the  two 
warring  nations,  de  Witte  and  Rosen  for  Russia,  and  Komura  and 
Takahira  for  Japan  (both  of  the  latter  the  writer’s  former  pupils  in 
Tokio),  met  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H. ; whence,  in  the  thirties,  had 
sailed  Captain  Edmund  Roberts,  commissioned  by  President  Jack- 
son,  and  the  first  American  diplomatist  in  the  Far  East.  The 
Japanese  won  a signal  diplomatic  victory,  securing  the  main 
points  of  their  contention. 

The  peace  treaty  which  was  signed  recognized  in  the  first 
article  Japan’s  predominant  position  in  Corea,  political,  military, 
economic,  as  well  as  her  right  to  supervise  that  country’s  affairs 
and  to  protect  it,  Russia  agreeing  not  to  obstruct  Japan’s  pro- 
ceedings in  any  respect.  One  of  the  first  and  worst  results  for 
Corea  was  the  immediate  entrance  within  her  borders  of  a horde 
of  low-class,  insolent  Japanese  adventurers,  who,  by  their  cruelties 
and  spoliations  of  natives,  nearly  neutralized  the  well-meant  plans 
of  good  men  in  Tokio. 

Following  up  the  results  of  the  decisive  war,  the  Mikado  sent 
his  highly  honored  servant,  Baron  Komura,  to  Peking  to  arrange 
matters  amicably  with  China,  and  then  turned  his  attention  to 
Corea.  The  protocol  of  March,  1904  (p.  495),  had  been  quickly 
followed  by  the  abolition  of  the  Pedlers’  Guild  (so  long  used  by 
pro-Russian  intriguers)  and  by  the  visit  of  Marquis  Ito,  who  bore  a 
reassuring  message  of  fraternity  and  good-will.  Mr.  I.  Megata, 
one  of  the  most  experienced  and  skilful  officers  of  the  Treasury 
Department  in  Tokio,  was  sent  to  Seoul  as  financial  adviser,  and 
Mr.  Durham  Dwight  Stevens,  an  American  gentleman,  who  united 
ability  and  tact  to  long  and  varied  experience  in  diplomacy  in  the 
Far  East,  accepted  the  post  of  assistant  at  the  Corean  Foreign 
Office.  These  gentlemen,  like  all  their  predecessors,  encountered 
insuperable  difficulties  in  dealing  with  a government  that  was 


500 


COREA. 


nominally  carried  on  at  the  Council  Board,  but  in  reality  directed 
from  the  harem  or  by  clan  factions  in  secret  intrigue. 

Occupied  so  seriously  with  othe  r matters,  few  attempts  were 
made  at  first  by  the  Japanese  Government  in  the  interest  of  real 
reforms  that  could  benefit  the  Corean  people.  Meanwhile,  it  must 
be  repeated,  tens  of  thousands  of  the  Mikado’s  subjects,  many  of 
them  of  the  most  truculent  temper  and  disreputable  character, 
crowded  into  the  peninsula,  committing  acts  of  rapine  and  brutal- 
ity which  neutralized  many  of  the  best  measures  of  wise  states- 
men. When  the  proposition,  approved  of  in  Tokio,  was  made 
that  all  uncultivated  land  in  the  peninsula  should  be  open  to 
Japanese  occupation  and  enterprise,  and  the  water  rights  and 
supply  be  shared  by  these  aliens,  the  Corean  people,  as  a body, 
made  systematic  protest.  All  the  circumstances  considered,  this 
sudden  act  of  virtual  spoliation  was  a colossal  blunder.  In  the 
eyes  of  the  Coreans  it  was  not  only  “stealing  water  from  an- 
other man’s  field  ” — so  terrible  a crime  in  lands  of  rice  culture, 
where  irrigation  is  a vital  necessity — but  the  theft  of  the  very  soil 
itself.  At  once  a storm  of  opposition  arose  that  swept  the  penin- 
sula from  end  to  end.  The  Corean  Emperor  was  besieged  with 
petitions  to  resist  the  Japanese  demands.  A society  called  Po-an, 
for  the  preservation  of  safety  and  peace,  was  formed,  which  met 
in  Seoul  in  excited  discussion,  and  began  the  propagation  of  what 
seemed  to  the  Japanese  authorities  a campaign  of  sedition.  The 
meetings  of  the  Po-an  were  broken  up  by  the  police,  and  the  Jap- 
anese garrison  of  Seoul  was  augmented  to  six  thousand  men. 
Though  other  Corean  societies  were  formed,  the  excitement  died 
out,  the  Japanese  not  pushing  their  scheme,  the  Corean  noblemen 
showing  little  or  no  real  patriotism,  and  the  people  little  power 
of  persistent  unity.  On  October  13,  1904,  General  Hasegawa  took 
control  of  the  military  situation. 

Yet  it  is  the  simple  truth  to  state  that  while  the  Japanese 
soldier,  superb  in  discipline  and  noble  in  human  qualities,  is 
respected  by  the  Corean,  the  low  Japanese,  who  so  often  proves 
himself  a rascal,  is  feared  and  despised.  It  is  unfortunate  that 
these  disreputable  characters  were  so  long  under  such  slight  con- 
trol from  Tokio.  On  the  other  hand,  notwithstanding  that  Japan, 
in  the  treaty  of  1904,  had  guaranteed  the  independence  of  Corea, 
yet  the  Government  in  Seoul,  choked  by  palace  cl  ques,  languished 


COREA  A JAPANESE  PROTECTORATE. 


501 


in  chronic  feebleness.  Unable  to  keep  order  at  home,  to  pay  its 
legation  bills  abroad,  or  to  separate  itself  from  that  “Forbidden 
Interior  ” of  mystery  in  the  boudoir  inhabited  by  a mob  of  women, 
eunuchs  and  hangers-on,  which  curses  China,  Corea,  and  so  long 
cursed  old  Japan  in  both  Yedo  and  Kioto,  what  guarantee  was 
there  for  the  peace  of  Asia  and  the  world?  For  the  preservation 
of  this,  the  Mikado’s  Government  was  responsible,  while  every 
complication  in  Corea  involved  Japan  also. 

After  long  deliberation,  the  statesmen  in  Tokio  agreed  that 
the  surest  exit  out  of  the  labyrinthine  difficulty  was  to  take 
charge  of  Corea’s  foreign  relations  and  place  a controller-general 
at  the  capital,  with  subordinates  at  the  chief  cities  and  seaports, 
leaving  internal  affairs  to  be  directed  from  Seoul.  The  Mikado 
despatched  Marquis  Ito — “ patient,  able,  and  authoritative  ”• — to 
Seoul. 

On  the  17th  of  November,  1905,  the  Corean  Emperor’s  min- 
ister, Pak  Che  Soon,  and  the  Mikado’s  representative,  Hayashi, 
signed  a treaty,  of  which  the  following  is  the  official  translation 
into  English  : 

The  Governments  of  Japan  and  Corea,  desiring  to  strengthen  the  principle  of 
solidarity  which  unites  the  two  Empires,  have  with  that  object  in  view  agreed 
upon  and  concluded  the  following  stipulations  to  serve  until  the  moment  arrives 
when  it  is  recognized  that  Corea  has  attained  national  strength  : — 

Article  I.  The  Government  of  Japan,  through  the  Department  of  Foreign 
Affairs  at  Tokio,  will  hereafter  have  control  and  direction  of  the  external  rela- 
tions and  affairs  of  Corea,  and  the  diplomatic  and  consular  representatives  of 
Japan  will  have  the  charge  of  the  subjects  and  interests  of  Corea  in  foreign 
countries. 

Art.  II.  The  Government  of  Japan  undertake  to  see  to  the  execution  of  the 
treaties  actually  existing  between  Corea  and  other  Powers,  and  the  Government 
of  Corea  engage  not  to  conclude  hereafter  any  act  or  engagement  having  an 
international  character,  except  through  the  medium  of  the  Government  of  Japan. 

Art  III.  The  Government  of  Japan  shall  be  represented  at  the  Court  of 
His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Corea  by  a Resident  General,  who  shall  reside  at 
Seoul,  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  taking  charge  of  and  directing  matters 
relating  to  diplomatic  affairs.  He  shall  have  the  right  of  private  and  personal 
audience  of  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Corea.  The  Japanese  Government 
shall  also  have  the  right  to  station  Residents  at  the  several  open  ports  and  such 
other  places  in  Corea  as  they  may  deem  necessary.  Such  Residents  shall,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Resident  General,  exercise  the  powers  and  functions  hitherto 
appertaining  to  Japanese  Consuls  in  Corea,  and  shall  perform  such  duties  as  may 
be  necessary  in  order  to  carry  into  full  effect  the  provisions  of  this  agreement. 


502 


COREA. 


Art.  IV.  The  stipulations  of  all  treaties  and  agreements  existing  between 
Japan  and  Corea  not  inconsistent  with  the  provisions  of  this  agreement  shall 
continue  in  force. 

Art.  V.  The  Government  of  Japan  undertake  to  maintain  the  welfare  and 
dignity  of  the  Imperial  House  of  Corea. 

In  faith  whereof  the  undersigned,  duly  authorized  by  the  Governments,  have 
signed  this  agreement  and  affixed  their  seals. 

[Signed]  Hyashi  Gonscke, 

Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary. 

[Signed]  Pak  Che  Soon, 

Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs. 

November  17,  1905. 

Whatever  may  be  the  real  history  of  the  transfer  thus  made  or 
the  means  taken  to  secure  the  document,  it  is  certain  that  the 
governments  of  Europe  and  America  were  very  prompt  in  with- 
drawing their  legations  from  Seoul  and  in  acknowledging  Japan’s 
supremacy.  In  Washington  the  minds  of  the  President  and  Sec- 
retary of  State  were  quickly  made  up,  because  of  the  local  eccen- 
tricities of  Corean  envoys,  unable  to  pay  their  grocery  bills,  and 
despite  the  representations  of  more  than  one  private  emissary. 
On  the  accession  of  Theodore  Roosevelt  to  the  presidency  by  the 
election  of  the  people  and  his  change  of  diplomatic  assistants, 
Minister  Horace  N.  Allen,  long  our  able  representative  in  Seoul, 
was  succeeded,  in  1905,  by  Mr.  Edwin  Vernon  Morgan,  who  had 
had  experience  in  Samoa,  Corea,  Russia,  and  China.  He  being 
appointed  to  another  position,  the  American  legation  in  Seoul 
ceased,  while  the  consul-general  and  consuls  were  retained  as 
before. 

Meanwhile,  under  the  energetic  action  of  the  Resident  Gen- 
eral Ito,  real  reforms  were  inaugurated  and  disorderly  Japanese 
characters  arrested  and  either  sent  out  of  the  country  or  made  to 
give  pledges  for  good  behavior.  The  whole  prospect  of  things 
brightened. 

At  a banquet  given  in  his  honor  by  his  countrymen  in  Seoul, 
April  8,  1906,  the  Marquis  Ito  spoke  as  follows : 

“ According  to  what  His  Corean  Majesty  has  repeatedly  con- 
descended to  say  to  me,  I may  be  permitted  to  believe  that  I have 
the  honor  to  enjoy  his  confidence  and  trust  in  no  small  measure. 
He  has  on  more  than  one  occasion  been  pleased  to  assure  me  that 
he  wished  to  rely  upon  my  loyal  services  for  the  regeneration  of 


COUEA  A JAPANESE  PROTECTORATE. 


503 


the  Corean  Administration.  His  Majesty  has  also  given  orders  to 
his  Ministers  to  carry  out  this  work  of  regeneration  under  my  di- 
rection and  guidance.  As  for  the  Corean  Ministers,  they  have 
assured  me  of  their  determination  to  do  their  utmost  to  this  end ; 
they  say  that  an  opportunity  like  the  present  will  not  occur  again, 
and,  as  a matter  of  fact,  they  are  now  actively  engaged  in  the 
work  of  regeneration.” 

Apparently  these  words  were  as  honestly  applauded  by  the 
Corean  Emperor’s  servants  as  they  were  believed  to  be  true  by 
the  speaker  himself.  In  mutual  confidence,  Corean  military  offi- 
cers were  duly  appointed,  and  both  General  Hasegawa  and  the 
Marquis  Ito  left  with  them  for  Japan,  to  witness  the  grand  review 
of  the  returning  victorious  Japanese  armies  from  Manchuria, 
which  was  held  in  Tokio  April  30th. 

The  opportunity  for  intrigue  and  conspiracy  created  by  the 
absence  of  the  two  great  men  was  too  tempting  to  be  lost  by  the 
factions  of  the  boudoir  and  its  inmates.  The  Corean  Conserva- 
tive and  Progressive  parties  kept  warring  among  themselves, 
hatching  plots  in  which  even  the  emperor’s  privy  councillors, 
palace  eunuchs,  and  officers  of  the  Imperial  household  were  active. 
Two  lines  of  policy  looking  to  domestic  and  foreign  disturbance 
were  mapped  out  by  the  conspirators.  One  utilized  the  distress 
and  almost  chronic  troubles  in  the  southwestern  provinces,  the 
other  was  based  on  the  hope  of  Russian  intervention.  The  plot 
was  planned  by  yang-ban  in  the  palace  itself. 

In  Chung  Chong  Do  (p.  194)  a Min  and  in  Chulla  Do  (p.  199) 
a Choi  nobleman  led  the  insurrections.  Antiquated  muskets, 
matchlocks,  swords,  and  spears  were  laid  in  store  against  the  Jap- 
anese. In  Kang-wen  Do  (p.  208),  also,  troubles  were  reported. 
Four  police  (out  of  the  350  then  in  all  Corea)  were  sent  from  the 
Residency  in  Seoul,  but  they  were  killed  or  driven  away.  The 
Corean  provincial  troops  being  supine,  two  companies  of  Japanese 
infantry  were  sent  to  the  city.  Attacking  in  daylight  in  order  to 
spare  the  peaceful  non-combatants,  the  soldiers  blew  up  the  gates 
with  dynamite.  After  some  street  fighting  the  city  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  military,  69  Coreans  being  killed  and  145  made 
prisoners.  It  was  hoped  that  this  affair  would  end  further  insur- 
rection. 

But  in  a land  so  long  governed  by  the  sorcerer,  where  the 


504 


COEEA. 


means  of  communication  are  slight  and  the  people  lack  education 
and  mental  initiative,  news  travels  slowly.  Choi,  in  the  more 
southern  city,  held  out.  Murderous  attacks  on  Japanese  settlers 
and  fishermen  continued.  The  Wi-pion  party,  representing  invet- 
erate conservatism,  sided  witli  the  insurgents,  while  the  II  Ching- 
lioi,  or  Liberal  Progressive,  set  to  work  to  unearth  evidence  and 
expose  the  Conservative  plotters.  Giving  information  at  the  Resi- 
dency in  Seoul,  five  high  officers,  Kim,  Choi,  Min,  Hong,  etc.,  of 
the  Corean  Court  or  Government,  including  a eunuch,  were  ar- 
rested. The  twofold  plan,  first,  to  make  the  world  believe  that 
the  whole  Corean  people  was  opposed  to  the  Japanese  protector- 
ate, and  second,  to  enlist  Russian  cooperation,  was  exposed.  One 
immediate  result  of  forcing  the  Japanese  military  hand  was  the 
quick  surrender  of  Choi  to  Corean  soldiers  in  Chulla  Do.  In  his 
camp  was  found  authorization  from  Seoul,  sealed  with  the  ver- 
milion seal  of  the  palace,  to  raise  troops.  Thus  collapsed  the 
plot  for  internal  disturbance.' 

The  prospect  of  drawing  Russia  again  into  hostilities  which 
might  free  Corea  from  the  Japanese  yoke  shows  the  weak  spot  in 
the  Russo-Chinese  negotiations  of  Ignatieff  in  18G0  (p.  371).  In 
the  delimitation  of  frontiers  then  made,  a strip  of  country  con- 
taining nearly  3,000  square  miles,  called  Han-do,  or  Island  Circuit, 
between  the  Tumen  and  its  affluent,  the  Hai-lan  River,  which,  be- 
ginning about  seventy-five  miles  from  the  sea,  flows  nearly  parallel, 
was  left  as  neutral  territory  to  be  uninhabited.  This  region  is 
shown  on  the  maps  (pp.  210,  365),  and  though  the  Chinese  charac- 
ters describe  an  island,  it  is  interfluvial  only.  In  reality  the  land, 
being  very  fertile,  did  in  course  of  time  attract  many  settlers,  both 
Chinese  and  Corean.  When  Russia  began  to  assert  her  strenuous 
policy  in  the  Far  East,  she  demanded  that  this  neutral  strip 
should  be  cleared  of  Coreans,  or  that  all  settlers  in  this  region 
between  the  rivers  should  be  enrolled  as  Chinese  subjects.  The 
Japanese  War  coming  on  in  1904,  nothing  further  was  done. 
Since  Russia,  by  the  Portsmouth  treaty,  controls  the  railways  of 
Kirin,  she  may  by  holding  this  region  control  the  trade  routes  to 
the  seaboard. 

1 See  the  long  letter  in  the  London  Times  of  August  8,  190G,  from  an  unim- 
peachable authority — the  author  of  the  Oriental  Series,  nearly  forty  years  in  the 
Far  East. 


COREA  A JAPANESE  PROTECTORATE. 


505 


Here  then  was  the  bait  to  make  the  Russian  bear  bite.  One 
of  the  Kims,  an  anti-Japanese  ultra-conservative,  secured  a com- 
mission from  the  Corean  Emperor  appointing  him  virtually  gov- 
ernor of  this  Hai-lan  region.  At  Vladivostok,  through  the  in- 
famous pro-Russian  Li  Yong  Ik  and  M.  Pavloff,  the  late  envoy  of 
the  Czar  in  Corea,  the  Court  of  St.  Petersburg  was  to  be  sounded 
on  the  possibility  of  gaining  control  of  this  strategic  territory. 

If  it  be  asked,  what  ground  of  hope  Kim  Ilseung-mun  had 
of  success,  it  must  be  remembered  that  while  all  other  foreign 
consuls  in  Corea,  under  the  new  order  of  things,  had  received 
their  exequaturs,  or  authorizations,  from  the  Emperor  of  Japan,  the 
new  Russian  Consul-General,  M.  Plancon,  claimed  that  he  should 
be  recognized  by  the  Corean  and  not  the  Japanese  emperor,  thus 
ignoring  Corea’s  denunciation  of  her  old  treaty  with  China  and 
the  convention  of  Xovember  17,  1905.  The  Russian  envoy,  for  a 
little  while  or  until  he  withdrew  his  contention,  consciously  or  un- 
consciously, gave  encouragement  to  the  Corean  conspirator,  Kim. 
This  whole  plot  to  embroil  Russia  and  Japan  was  frustrated,  get- 
ting no  further  than  the  palace,  while  the  surrender  of  Choi  in 
Chulla  Do  was  made  sure  by  the  arrest,  on  the  night  of  June  8th, 
of  the  chief  conspirators  as  they  were  leaving  the  palace.  The 
Liberals  had  turned  state’s  evidence. 

Without  impeaching  the  Corean  Emperor,  the  Japanese  Gov- 
ernment removed  his  evil  advisers  and  resolved  to  persevere  in 
using  what  authority  he  still  possesses  for  the  good  of  the  Corean 
people — as  their  protectors  see  it. 

That  policy  requires  the  public  finance  of  Corea  to  be  known 
in  ledgers  and  budgets,  with  strict  accountability  for  every  dollar ; 
the  purging  of  the  palace,  and  the  thorough  differentiation  of 
Court  and  Government,  and  of  the  “ boudoir  ” from  the  council 
table ; the  creation  of  a public  school  system ; the  building  of  a 
railway  from  Ping  An  to  Gen  san ; a coinage  and  stable  monetary 
system;  the  reform  of  prison  methods  and  the  judiciary;  the 
reclamation  of  the  vast  quantities  of  waste  land ; the  encourage- 
ment of  all  moral  forces ; the  development  of  trade,  commerce, 
and  industry ; and  last,  but  not  least,  the  severe  handling  of  un- 
principled and  truculent  Japanese ; or,  in  general,  a policy  of 
righteousness  and  conciliation  that  must  overcome  the  traditional 
hatred  between  the  Coreans  and  the  Japanese.  To  make  the 


506 


COREA. 


yang-ban  get  to  work  and  earn  their  own  living  will  be  the  great 
blessing  to  this  long-oppressed  land.  If  Japan  can  satisfy  the 
enlightened  judgment  of  the  world  that  Corea  is  exploited  for  the 
good  primarily  of  the  Coreans  and  not  the  Japanese,  humanity 
will  approve  and  rejoice.  The  accomplished  author  of  “The 
Passing  of  Korea,”  which  contains  the  severest  arraignment  of 
the  Japanese  thus  far  made,  passes  this  verdict  on  the  situation : 

“ The  Koreans  have  awakened  to  the  fact  that  this,  which 
should  have  been  their  first  consideration  many  years  ago,  is  now 
their  last  resort,  and  they  are  clamoring  for  education.  . . . 
Korea  can  gain  nothing  by  holding  back  and  offering  to  the  plans 
of  Japan  a sulky  resistance.  They  are  face  to  face  with  a definite 
condition,  and  theories  as  to  the  morality  of  the  forces  which 
brought  about  the  condition  are  wholly  academic.” 


CHAPTER  LIV. 


chosen:  a province  of  japan. 

Cho-sen  is  the  official  name  of  the  country  described  in  this 
volume  and  now  a province  of  Japan,  as  declared  in  the  Act  of 
Annexation  of  August,  1910.  Thus  its  oldest  name,  now  to  be 
better  known  to  the  world,  is  also  its  newest.  Since  1392  the 
natives  have  known  no  other.  The  Chinese  characters  for  Cho-sen, 
or  Morning  Calm,  were  stamped  on  the  first  and  earlier  editions  of 
this  book.  The  Japanese  name  of  the  capital  is  Keijo. 

By  the  Russo-Japanese  war,  Corea  was  saved  from  being  a 
Russian  province  and  the  king  and  court  given  the  supreme  occa- 
sion of  reform,  which,  if  carried  out,  would  mean  new  national  life. 
Corea  would  have  remained  a sovereign  state,  had  the  chief  ruler 
and  the  governing  classes  risen  to  their  opportunity. 

It  was  not  to  be.  With  despotism  in  the  palace  and  a lettered 
class  bound  in  cast-iron  traditions,  but  profoundly  ignorant  of  the 
world  and  the  century,  there  lay  beneath  an  oppressed  populace, 
steeped  in  superstition,  for  which  the  Government  did  nothing. 
Lacking  an  intelligent  middle  class  between,  reform  in  Corea,  ex- 
cept from  without,  was  perhaps  morally  impossible. 

Old  Corea,  an  unreformed  Oriental  state,  with  all  the  features 
inseparably  associated  with  such  a society,  was  thus  described  by 
Lord  Curzon  in  1894: 

“A  royal  figure-head,  enveloped  in  the  mystery  of  the  palace 
and  the  harem,  surrounded  by  concentric  rings  of  eunuchs,  Min- 
isters of  State,  officials  and  retainers,  and  rendered  almost  intangible 
by  the  predominant  atmosphere  of  intrigue;  a hierarchy  of  office- 
holders and  office-seekers,  who  are  leeches  in  the  thinnest  disguise; 
a feeble  and  insignificant  army,  an  impecunious  exchequer,  a de- 
based currency,  and  an  impoverished  people — these  are  the  in- 

507 


508 


COREA. 


variable  symptoms  of  the  fast-vanishing  regime  of  the  older  and 
unredeemed  Oriental  type.  Add  to  these  the  first  swarming  of 
the  flock  of  foreign  practitioners  who  scent  the  enfeebled  constitu- 
tion from  afar  and  from  the  four  winds  of  Heaven  come  pressing 
their  pharmacopeia  of  loans,  concessions,  banks,  mints,  factories, 
and  all  the  recognized  machinery  for  filling  Western  purses  at  the 
expense  of  Eastern  pockets,  and  you  have  a fair  picture  of  Korea 
as  she  stands  after  ten  years  of  emergence  from  her  long  seclusion 
and  enjoyment  of  the  intercourse  of  the  nations.” 

Corea  as  represented  by  the  yang-ban,  or  ruling  class,  number- 
ing with  their  families  200,000  souls,  was  dragged  suddenly  out 
into  the  world’s  light  and  confronted  with  vital  problems.  With- 
out that  long  interior  intellectual  preparation  which  enabled  Japan 
in  the  nick  of  time  to  meet  her  new  duties,  the  Coreans  were  neither 
able  nor  willing  to  grapple  with  the  colossal  tasks  awaiting  them. 
Yet  this  was  no  fault  of  the  plain  people,  for  it  is  to  their  credit  that 
they  welcomed  foreigners.  Except  a morbid  curiosity  as  to  alien 
persons  and  ways,  they  have  ever  shown  kindness,  and  politeness 
so  far  as  they  knew  it.  With  amazing  promptness  the  spiritually 
hungry  and  thirsty  masses  have  responded  with  grateful  appre- 
ciation to  what  their  foreign  teachers  brought  them.  One  secret 
of  their  readiness  and  docility  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  were 
glad  to  be  delivered  from  the  oppression  of  rulers,  whose  one 
idea  of  government  meant  the  grinding  of  the  people  for  private 
benefit. 

After  the  treaty  of  November  17,  1905,  by  which  a Resident- 
General  from  Japan  was  established  in  Seoul,  and  which  took  con- 
trol of  the  foreign  relations  and  affairs  of  the  little  kingdom,  it 
was  found  that  few  of  those  who  could  have  effected  national  re- 
form gave  any  indication  of  their  desire  to  do  so.  In  1907  a fresh 
agreement  was  made,  “with  the  object  of  speedily  providing  for 
the  wealth  of  Corea  and  of  promoting  its  welfare,”  and  the  Japa- 
nese Government  spent  millions  of  dollars  in  schemes  of  practical 
advantage  to  the  Coreans.  When,  after  four  years,  it  was  found 
that  the  age-old  abuses  continued,  and  reform  by  natives  seemed 
impossible,  the  formal  annexation  of  Corea  was  consummated  on 
August  29,  1910.  The  full  text  of  the  treaty,  in  eight  articles, 
with  preamble,  etc.,  and  English  translation,  is  printed  in  the 


ch5-sen:  a province  of  japan.  509 

Journal  of  International  Law  ( Revue  de  Droit  International ) for 
December,  1910,  published  in  Tokio. 

The  Amalgamation  Convention  provides:1 
“ (1)  The  Emperor  of  Corea  shall  concede  to  the  Emperor  of 
Japan  the  Corean  sovereignty,  together  with  all  territorial  rights. 

“ (2)  The  Sovereign  Imperial  Household  is  to  be  treated  as  a 
quasi-imperial  Family  of  Japan,  continuing  to  have  the  annual 
allowance  of  1,500,000  yen,  while  members  of  the  Imperial  Family 
and  meritorious  persons  of  the  country  are  to  be  created  peers,  or 
endowed  with  certain  grants. 

“(3)  The  name  Corea  shall  be  changed  into  ‘Cho-sen.’ 

“ (4)  The  Corean  Cabinet  being  abolished,  the  Residency- 
General  shall  be  changed  into  a government  of  Governor-General, 
while  as  to  the  administrative  business  and  customs  tariff,  there 
will  be  no  change  for  the  present.” 

The  cost  to  Japan  of  the  amalgamation  is  estimated  at  yen, 
30,000,000,  or  $15,000,000.  Seventy-five  Coreans  of  distinguished 
families  were  created  peers  of  Japan,  and  the  monetary  grants  in 
yen  were  conferred  as  follows:  to  a baron,  50,000;  to  a viscount, 
100,000;  to  a count,  150,000;  and  to  a marquis,  200,000.  As 
with  the  kuge,  or  court  nobles,  to  prevent  waste,  the  principal  is 
retained  in  the  Imperial  Treasury,  and  the  interest  promptly  paid 
at  frequent  intervals.  Provision  has  been  made  for  other  meri- 
torious persons,  and  the  military  conscription  will  not  be  put  in 
force  for  ten  years  yet.  Meanwhile,  besides  thousands  of  Corean 
students  in  Tokio,  delegations  of  leading  men  and  women  of 
Cho-sen  have  visited  and  travelled  in  Japan. 

It  has  always  been  a sore  spot  with  the  Coreans  that  the 
United  States  refused  to  intervene,  though  in  the  first  article  of 
the  treaty  of  May  22,  1882,  promise  was  made  that  “if  other 
Powers  deal  unjustly  or  oppressively  with  either  Government,  the 
other  will  exert  their  good  offices,  on  being  informed  of  the  case,  to 
bring  about  an  amicable  arrangement,  thus  showing  their  friendly 
feeling.”  Yet  apart  from  the  settled  policy  of  non-intervention  in 
the  affairs  of  foreign  nations,  the  United  States  was  but  one  of 
several  nations  that,  with  a significant  promptness  and  unanimity, 


The  Japan  Mail,  August  27,  1910. 


510 


COREA. 


gladly  called  home  their  legations  and  handed  over  the  control  of 
Corea  to  Japan. 

There  is  nothing  mysterious  to  the  student  in  the  loss  of  Corea’s 
sovereignty  and  her  absorption  in  the  Japanese  Empire.  A sur- 
vey of  her  history  and  a view  of  the  world’s  movement  since  18G6 
shows  inexorably  the  law  of  causttand  effect.  It  was  the  weakness 
of  Corea  to  be  not  only  shut  off  from  the  world,  but  in  her  hermitage 
so  to  exaggerate  antiquity  and  its  importance  as  to  leave  the  nation 
helpless  in  the  modern  clash  of  civilizations,  when  Orient  and 
Occident  are  meeting  to  merge  into  one  world  society.  The  first 
infirmity  of  the  Coreans  of  insular  mind  arises  from  long  contact 
with  the  history  and  literature  of  the  Chinese.  Stimulating  to  the 
intellect,  this  has  paralyzed  mental  initiative  and  swamped  orig- 
inality. The  Corean  imagined  that  China’s  was  the  beginning 
and  end  of  all  wisdom.  Added  to  this  was  the  delusion  that  a 
knowledge  of  letters  was  in  itself  sufficient  to  preserve  both  society 
and  national  sovereignty. 

Old  Japan  suffered  frightfully,  but  not  fatally,  from  the  same 
disease.  In  Corea’s  case,  this  insanity  of  literary  pride  was  ex- 
aggerated into  a crime  when,  after  1392,  the  popular  religion  was 
ruthlessly  destroyed,  the  people  robbed  of  their  teachers,  and  the 
country  given  over  to  superstition  and  ignorance  by  a Government 
which  Lieutenant  Foulk,  in  1883,  after  prolonged  tours  within  the 
country  and  study  of  the  details  of  administration,  declared  was 
but  armed  robbery. 

There  was  no  political  or  social  unity  in  the  Corean  peninsula 
until  the  tenth  century.  The  chief  force  in  welding  together  the 
various  tribes  and  peoples  into  the  astonishing  unity  and  similarity 
now  visible  among  the  people  and  villages  from  Quelpart  to  the 
Ever  White  Mountain  was  Buddhism.  The  missionaries  of  this 
faith,  coming  from  Thibet  and  China,  gave  the  peninsulars  art, 
architecture,  literature,  folk-lore,  a noble  path  of  morals  for  guid- 
ance in  this  life,  vast  consolations  for  the  future,  and  pretty  much 
everything  that  means  culture,  refinement,  and  civilization.  In 
very  early  days,  before  Mikadoism  in  Japan  was  formulated  into 
a militant  dogma,  the  islanders  and  the  peninsulars,  the  Japanese 
and  the  Coreans,  were  virtually  one  and  the  same  people,  and  in 
about  the  same  stage  of  civilization.  In  the  reaction  of  nature 


cho-sen:  a province  of  japan.  511 

upon  man  and  of  man  upon  nature,  during  ten  centuries,  the  two 
peoples  were  differentiated,  and  the  two  languages — almost  ex- 
actly the  same  in  structure,  thus  proving  their  common  origin- 
developed  their  vocabulary  and  local  pronunciation.  The  two 
nations,  according  to  their  ethnic  mixtures,  heredity  and  environ- 
ment, grew  further  and  further  apart.  Nevertheless,  to-day,  after 
a millennium  of  separation,  the  underlying  elements  are  so  much 
greater  than  the  surface  differences  that  the  prospects  of  an  amal- 
gamation of  the  two  peoples  are  decidedly  promising. 

In  the  main,  the  history  of  Corea  is  like  its  landscape.  Her 
political  annals,  as  thus  far  studied,  seem  like  monotonous  under- 
growth among  which  loom  indistinct  figure-heads.  As  bare  as  her 
desolated  coast  or  denuded  mountains,  the  scene  in  historic  per- 
spective reminds  one  of  the  peninsula’s  lava  beds,  her  square  leagues 
of  disintegrated  granite,  or  her  waste  lands,  out  of  which  rise  sculpt- 
ured rocks,  and  whence  emerge  the  Miryeks,  or  stone  colossi,  amid 
ruins  surrounded  with  forests.  To  a native  scholar  his  nation’s 
chronicles  are  not  without  a rugged  grandeur  of  their  own,  besides 
a rich  coloring  that  recalls  the  rock-scenery  of  Corea  when  looked 
at  in  the  sunlight. 

To  the  alien  student,  Buddhism  looms  as  the  chief  civilizer 
and  the  mother  of  popular  culture.  It  is  certain  that  during  its 
thousand  years  of  growth  and  prosperity  in  the  peninsula  the 
people  were  as  one  flock  led  by  one  shepherd.  They  were  trained 
in  what  was  at  least  beautiful  and  human.  Corea’s  debt  to  Budd- 
hism is  unspeakable.  Even  to-day,  in  the  land  so  often  invaded, 
desolated,  peeled,  and  scraped  by  Tartar,  Chinese,  and  Japanese 
marauders,  and  raided  by  men  from  countries  called  Christian, 
almost  everything  that  remains  to  touch  the  imagination,  whether 
in  architecture,  rock  sculpture,  stone  colossus,  pagoda,  in  art,  and 
even  in  literature,  apart  from  erudition,  is  of  Buddhist  origin. 

When,  after  a.d.  1392,  the  popular  faith  was  banned,  its  tem- 
ples, schools,  monasteries,  and  works  of  art  destroyed  or  doomed 
to  decay,  its  priesthood  socially  outlawed  and  oppressed  even  to 
beggary,  the  people  were  left  to  ignorance  and  superstition  and 
were  as  sheep  without  shepherds.  They  became  the  prey  alike  of 
the  ruling  classes  and  of  sorcerers  and  fortune-tellers,  who,  though 
densely  ignorant,  lived  by  their  wits  and  wickedness.  Parasitic 


512 


COREA. 


spoilers  of  all  sorts,  from  the  palace  to  the  hovel,  thrived,  while 
the  people,  the  foundation  of  the  state,  existed  on  life’s  narrowest 
margins.  Confucianism,  as  made  into  a state  ritual  since  1392, 
and  as  interpreted  and  developed  by  the  yang-ban,  or  educated 
and  office-holding  classes,  meant  neglect  of  the  land,  the  grinding 
of  the  people’s  faces,  the  permanent  destruction  of  popular  wealth 
and  comfort,  the  paralysis  of  the  motives  to  industry,  and  the  cre- 
ation of  a standing  army  of  inquisitors,  office-seekers,  and  office- 
holders, and  their  satellites  and  hangers-on,  with  headquarters  in 
Seoul.  In  place  of  the  spiritual  bread  of  Buddhism,  the  new 
regime  offered  a stone.  In  government,  instead  of  the  egg  for 
nourishment,  they  proffered  a scorpion — even  chronic  extortion. 
A great  gulf  was  fixed  socially  between  the  men  to  whom  educa- 
tion meant  the  stifling  of  original  thought,  a ban  on  mental  initiative 
and  the  oppression  of  the  people.  Monopoly  of  office  and  privilege, 
as  held  by  one  class,  meant  systematic  robbery  of  the  populace, 
the  Government  itself  being  an  engine  of  oppression  by  which 
fewer  than  one-quarter  million  yang-ban  subsisted  upon  eleven 
million  of  the  common  folk. 

When  reform  was  called  for  which  meant  public  benefit, 
apart  from  private  rapine  or  individual  advantage,  manual  as  well 
as  clerkly  labor,  continuous  and  unselfish  toil  with  only  slight 
pecuniary  reward,  the  average  high-class  native  proved  a total 
failure.  Despite  the  purging  from  the  palace  of  several  hundred 
women,  and  over  a thousand  male  persons  who  drew  salaries,  the 
remainder  within,  or  parasitic  to  royalty,  proved  worthless  for  the 
remaking  of  the  nation. 

Ever  under  the  spell  of  the  Chinese  characters,  saturated  with 
the  ideas  of  Confucianism  run  to  seed,  having  only  one  ideal  of 
life — selfish  advantage  and  the  subordination  of  the  lower  classes — 
devoted  to  their  sensual  enjoyments,  their  long  pipes,  and  their 
liquor,  to  checker-playing,  gossip,  and  elaborate  idleness,  the  yang- 
ban  during  five  centuries  did  nothing  to  develop  the  soil  or  the 
resources  of  the  country.  On  the  contrary,  the  office-holding  class 
systematically  hindered  the  development  of  wealth,  or  even  thrift, 
by  extortion,  unjust  taxes,  and  dishonest  manipulation  of  imposts, 
which  were  paid  in  kind  instead  of  in  coin,  by  exactions  or  forced 
loans  never  repaid — usually  under  the  menace  and  reality  of  beat- 


cho-sen:  a province  of  japan. 


513 


ing,  torture,  and  imprisonment.  One  innovation  under  the  Jap- 
anese rule,  which  made  taxes  payable  in  cash  and  not  in  kind, 
wrought  infinite  blessing  to  the  people  and  carried  consternation 
to  the  army  of  extortioners. 

In  the  modern  world-life,  Japan  and  Corea  are  as  necessary  to 
each  other  as  are  man  and  woman.  It  soon  became  evident  to  the 
Tokio  Government,  after  every  step,  that  some  stronger  remedy 
than  advice  would  be  necessary  to  heal  the  age-old  and  deep-seated 
Corean  disease  that  seemed  as  incurable  as  leprosy.  Hence  the 
measures  of  1907,  which  put  into  the  hands  of  the  Mikado’s  Resi- 
dent-General still  greater  powers. 

To  this  work  of  reforming  Corea,  Nippon  gave  her  ablest  son, 
one  who,  both  in  feudal  and  constitutional  Japan,  had  dedicated 
his  life  to  promoting  the  evolution  of  the  modern  man.  The 
statesmanship  of  Ito  was  that  of  a lover  of  humanity,  who  might 
well,  after  long  and  multifarious  labors,  have  taken  the  rest  which 
he  craved  and  which  his  physical  condition  demanded.  Never- 
theless, with  his  unique  experience  and  amazing  abilities,  he  ap- 
plied himself  with  unremitting  toil  to  lead  the  once  hermit  nation 
into  the  twentieth  century.  According  to  Ito’s  motto,  “The  secret 
of  statesmanship  consists  in  securing  the  contentment  of  the  people.” 
He  was  all  the  better  fitted  for  his  colossal  task  by  having  known 
so  well  the  late  feudal  Nippon  with  its  political  diseases.  Neglect 
of  the  people  and  of  the  soil,  official  falsehood,  and  class  oppression 
were  characteristic  of  both  countries.  Ito  took  all  the  more  en- 
couragement because  life  in  Cho-sen  was  but  the  mirror  of  that 
in  old  Japan.  Having  fought  belated  feudalism  and  grappled 
with  the  new  problems  of  a modern  state  in  Asia,  none  was  better 
equipped  than  he  for  the  task  of  making  a progressive  nation  out 
of  a people  whose  mental  eyes  were  set  even  further  back  in  their 
heads  than  those  of  the  Chinese. 

For  while  China  boasts  of  Confucius,  Corea  penetrates  further 
into  the  primitive.  She  hails  as  the  founder  of  her  social  order, 
Kija  (Ki-Tsze,  or  Kishi,  pp.  11-15),  the  distant  ancestor  of  the 
Chinese  sage.  On  this  nursery  fairy  tale  of  the  nation — since  the 
peninsulars  knew  nothing  of  writing  until,  long  after  the  Christian 
era,  they  obtained  the  Chinese  ideographs — every  Corean  for  a 
thousand  years  or  more  has  been  brought  up.  The  early  myth- 


514 


COREA. 


ology  and  legend  of  the  peninsulars  are  about  as  trustworthy  as 
those  of  the  neighboring  islanders,  whose  conceit  of  antiquity  was 
once  fully  as  great  and  whose  official  and  orthodox  chronology  was 
fixed  and  published  so  long  ago  as  a.d.  1872! 

This  myth  of  Kija,  as  the  actual  founder  of  civilization  east  of 
the  Yalu,  took  its  literary  form  only  in  the  eighth  century,  when 
the  Coreans  had  become  saturated  with  Chinese  ideas.  Then  the 
peninsulars,  made  acquainted  with  Chinese  historiography,  and 
having  but  one  model  before  them,  faithfully  followed  it  (as  did 
the  Japanese  also),  the  Coreans  surpassing  even  the  greater  nation 
in  pride  of  antiquity  and  in  the  glorification  of  heroes,  who  loom  up 
in  vaster  proportions  according  as  the  unrecorded  centuries  mul- 
tiply and  recede  into  the  past.  Historical  science  has  already  be- 
gun to  change  this  perspective  of  antiquity  as  surely  as  hospitals 
have  furnished  object-lessons  in  the  law  of  cause  and  effect.  Corean 
gods  and  demons,  more  numerous  even  than  old  Japan’s  mythical 
menagerie  and  pantheon,  are  being  steadily  banished  to  the  realms 
of  fairy-land.1 

Ito,  scorning  delights  and  living  laborious  days,  continued  the 
labors,  but  vastly  enlarged  the  plans  of  his  predecessors.  First  of 
all,  having  deported  hundreds  of  the  bad  subjects  of  the  Mikado 
and  curbed  the  rapacity  and  brutality  of  his  own  countrymen,  he 
applied  himself  unceasingly  to  healing  the  wounds  of  war,  to  in- 
demnifying the  unjustly  impoverished  natives,  and  to  giving  Corea 
what  she  never  had — or,  if  possessed  of,  had  allowed  to  lapse 
during  the  five  hundred  years  of  the  dynasty  that  had  destroyed 
the  people’s  religion  and  had  done  nothing  for  national  develop- 
ment. A system  of  good  roads,  honest  coinage  and  currency,  courts 
and  justice,  popular  education,  afforestation  of  the  mountains,  im- 
provement of  the  soil  through  scientific  agriculture  and  reclama- 
tion of  waste  land,  preventive  hygiene,  honest  taxation  and  col- 
lection now  exists.  Ito  cleansed  the  palace,  separating  the  functions 
of  Court  and  Government,  lessening  by  fifty  per  cent,  the  number 
of  persons  paid  from  the  public  treasury,  both  male  and  female, 
removing  as  far  as  possible  the  king  and  his  advisers  from  the 
great  mob  of  sorcerers,  fortune-tellers,  geomancers,  and  others  who 

1 See  “ The  Unmannerly  Tiger  and  Other  Korean  Fairy  Tales,”  by  W.  E. 
Griffis,  New  York,  1911. 


cho-sen:  a province  of  japan. 


515 


prey  upon  the  Corean  people.  The  deposition  of  the  incompetent 
emperor  and  the  installation  of  his  son  in  power  were  followed  by 
the  education  of  the  crown  prince  in  Tokio. 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  reform  were  appalling.  The 
principal  obstacles  existed  in  the  two  classes  of  which  Corean 
society  is  composed — oppressors  and  oppressed.  The  yang-ban,  or 
privileged  men,  with  more  or  less  scholarship  of  a Chinese  kind, 
seemed  to  have  no  conception  of  patriotism  apart  from  pelf.  Their 
chief  trait  was  political  vampirism.  On  the  other  hand,  the  supine 
attitude  of  the  common  people,  accustomed  for  centuries  to  syste- 
matic oppression,  was  discouraging.  To  them  even  decent  govern- 
ment, that  is,  the  kind  which  could  be  tolerated  to  the  point  of 
rebellion,  meant  the  grace  of  their  masters  and  rule  without  rob- 
bery. One  of  the  striking  features  of  nearly  every  Corean  town  or 
city  is  seen  in  the  long  rows  of  tablets  in  stone  or  iron  that  celebrate 
the  merits  of  “good,”  that  is,  fairly  decent,  governors.  A collec- 
tion of  all  the  local  instruments  of  torture,  stacked  in  one  museum, 
would  be  impressive  and  furnish  fuel  for  a vast  conflagration. 

In  education,  progress  was  hampered  by  the  general  prevalence 
of  fanaticism  on  the  subject  of  “race  suicide”  and  in  the  absurd 
measures  taken  for  its  prevention — measures  that  largely  tend  to 
hinder  the  end  in  view.  In  Corea  the  marriage  and  birth  rate  may 
possibly  be  in  excess  of  that  of  any  country  in  the  world,  while, 
almost  as  matter  of  course,  and  as  a scientific  corollary,  the  same 
may  be  said  of  the  death  rate,  which,  owing  to  superstition, 
ignorance,  and  dirt,  is  appalling.  Corea,  despite  shining  white 
clothes,  is  not  a land  of  bath-tubs.  In  the  schools,  nearly  all  the 
boys  were  found  to  be  married,  and  to  girls  older  than  themselves. 
These  over-mature  youths,  of  antediluvian  frame  of  mind,  too 
often  seem  to  have  eyes  set  too  far  back  in  their  heads,  which  fix 
their  gaze  on  duties  appropriate  to  the  time  of  Confucius  rather 
than  of  the  twentieth  century. 

We  have  glanced  at  this  subject  before.  Yet  even  to-day,  with 
all  the  advantages  afforded  them,  there  is  danger.  Expecting,  like 
their  fathers  before  them,  to  be  verse-makers,  to  quote  from  the 
ancient  Chinese,  to  be  literary,  and  to  hold  office,  because  of  a 
knowledge  of  the  characters,  the  young  Corean  yang-ban  are  indif- 
ferent to  useful  progress  and  scorn  manual  labor.  Having  already 


516 


COREA. 


lost  nearly  everything,  they  will,  unless  radically  changed  in  mind, 
lose  all.  The  one  hope  of  Cho-sen  is  the  raising  up  in  a generation, 
now  under  new  influences,  of  a new  type  of  j humanity.  The 
Christian  schools  and  churches  are  supplying  this  need. 

Indeed,  the  fall  of  yang-banism  and  the  extinction  of  Corea’s 
sovereignty  means  Buddhism’s  opportunity.  It  will  be  both  logi- 
cal and  natural  that  one  of  the  first  effects  of  Christian  missions 
will  be,  as  in  Japan,  to  quicken  the  spirit  and  improve  the  form 
and  power  of  the  older  religion.  Nor  ought  missionaries  fear  its 
vigorous  competition,  should  it  become  potent  for  the  abolition  of 
demon-worship  and  the  moral  uplift  of  the  masses  otherwise  neg- 
lected, especially  in  out-of-the-way  places. 

Unfortunately,  Corea  of  mediaeval  mind,  like  barbarous  Japan 
of  not  so  many  years  ago,  sought  a remedy  for  supposed  wrongs  in 
assassination.  Rashly  unintelligent,  sword  and  bullet  were  resorted 
to  in  order  to  stop  the  car  of  progress.  Quick  to  misjudge  and  im- 
patient to  wait  for  results,  the  assassin  selected  as  his  first  victims 
his  country’s  best  friends.  The  weak  and  disappointed  tried  sui- 
cide as  a remedy  and  deterrent.  The  insurgents  in  the  so-called 
Righteous  Army,  too  often  were  robbers  of  their  own  people.  In 
the  name  of  patriotism  they  attempted  redress,  seeking  to  turn 
back  “modern  civilization  which  rides  on  a powder  cart.”  The 
list  of  Coreans  who  in  cowardice  or  discouragement  died  by  their 
own  hands,  who  were  slaughtered  by  their  own  compatriots,  who 
fell  beneath  the  bullets  or  the  swords  of  rebels  in  civil  strife,  or 
who  were  mown  down  by  the  resistless  fire  of  the  Japanese  in- 
fantry, is  sadly  great.1 

The  Mikado’s  soldiers  were  perhaps  frequently  unable  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  deserving  and  the  undeserving.  Their  actions 
are  not  absolutely  free  from  criticism.  Yet  with  unrestrained 
frankness  the  statistics  of  the  military  operations  are  given  in  the 
Annual  Reports  on  Reforms  and  Progress  in  Korea,  in  1907,  1908-9, 
and  1909-10.  From  July,  1907,  when  the  riots  broke  out  in  Seoul, 
on  account  of  the  disbanding  of  the  Corean  army,  to  the  end  of  1908, 
there  were  of  Japanese  soldiers  179  killed  and  277  wrounded,  besides 
67  Japanese  residents  killed  in  1907  and  16  in  1908.  Of  Corean 


See  also  “ The  Tragedy  of  Korea,”  by  II.  A.  McKenzie,  London,  1908. 


cho-sen:  a province  of  japan. 


517 


insurgents,  14,560  were  “killed.”  Besides  positive  military  meas- 
ures, the  Corean  Emperor’s  rescripts  urging  those  in  arms  to  sub- 
mit quietly  were  effective,  and  the  total  of  those  who  surrendered 
and  were  pardoned  to  December  13,  1907,  was  8,728.  During  the 
fiscal  year  1909  the  Japanese  lost  38  men,  but  the  number  of  in- 
surgents killed  (3,001),  wounded,  captured,  or  surrendered  was 
6,131.  Those  in  arms  who  yielded  or  asked  pardon  were  given 
employment  in  road-making  and  other  useful  occupations.  By 
1911,  most  of  the  activity  of  native  insurgent  bands  had  degenerated 
into  the  work  of  mere  banditti.  Military  movements  on  a large 
scale  were  not  required,  and  much  of  the  desolation  of  villages  was 
repaired  with  better  hope  of  more  comfortable  existence.  Fright- 
ful as  is  this  frank  showing,  it  is  doubtful  whether  more  lives  were 
lost  in  the  suppression  of  rebellion,  from  1907  to  1911,  than  in  the 
nearly  chronic  anarchy  that  prevailed  in  the  southern  provinces 
during  the  previous  decade  and  a half. 

The  Annual  Reports  above  referred  to  show  by  text,  pictures, 
and  statistics,  not  only  the  purpose  and  results  of  the  Japanese 
Government,  but  also  the  fearful  cost  of  restoring  order,  a cost  of 
life  and  treasure  aggravated  both  by  natives  who  have  not  scrupled 
to  use  the  torch,  the  mulct,  and  the  assassin’s  weapon  on  their  own 
native  soil,  and  by  foreigners  who,  in  the  name  of  liberty,  abused 
the  freedom  of  the  press  and  kept  the  useless  and  dangerous 
embers  of  sedition  in  a flame.  Not  satisfied  with  murder  at  home, 
Coreans  have  made  the  United  States,  already  the  happy  hunting 
ground  of  the  Black  Hand  and  the  lyncher,  the  arena  of  their 
cowardly  exploits. 

After  Mr.  Durham  White  Stevens,  an  American  of  long  experi- 
ence in  the  Far  East,  and  Diplomatic  Adviser  to  the  Corean  Gov- 
ernment, had  been  shot  and  killed  in  San  Francisco  by  a Corean, 
the  most  shining  mark  was  Corea’s  best  friend,  Ito.  Made  a 
prince  and  rewarded  with  every  mark  of  honor  possible  to  a sub- 
ject by  the  Emperor  of  Japan,  this  man  who,  in  unquailing  dis- 
charge of  his  duty,  had  already  braved  the  Japanese  feudal  sword 
wielded  by  cowards  in  Choshiu,  and  the  infuriated  Tokio  mob  in 
constitutional  Japan,  and  who  seemed  immune  from  the  assassins 
of  which  old  Japan  raised  such  a luxuriant  crop,  fell  in  Manchuria 
at  the  Harbin  railway  station,  on  October  26,  1909,  before  the 


518 


COREA. 


bullets  of  the  petty  revenger,  who  shot  from  behind.  Amid  the 
grief  and  the  honor  of  the  whole  w'orld,  on  November  4,  1909, 
Ito  was  given  a State  funeral  such  as  has  been  bestowed  upon  few 
subjects  of  Japan.  Ito  shed  his  blood  in  the  cause  of  peace. 
Whether  these  assassinations  hastened  the  absorption  of  Corea  by 
Japan,  and  the  blotting  out  of  a sovereignty  unknown  to  the  world 
until  Japan,  by  peaceful  diplomacy,  conferred  it  in  187G,  is  not 
known.  The  Emperor  at  once  appointed  General  Viscount 
Terauchi,  then  Minister  of  War,  and  already  famous  for  his  brilliant 
military  record  and  notable  organizing  abilities,  to  be  the  successor 
of  Ito  in  Corea.  The  record  for  energetic  action,  consummate  tact, 
and  ceaseless  toil  already  made  by  Terauchi  places  his  name  very 
near  that  of  Ito  as  a modern  civilizer  and  lover  of  the  victories  of 
peace  even  more  than  those  of  war. 

Despite  all  the  instances  of  individual  wrong,  private  injustices, 
and  public  mistakes  made  by  the  Japanese  in  Corea,  and  in  view 
of  the  severe  criticisms  of  Terauchi  by  such  leading  Japanese  news- 
papers as  the  Kolcumin  and  Kochi,  it  is  nevertheless  manifest  that  the 
policy  of  the  Tokio  Government  is  antipodally  the  reverse  of  that 
of  Hid£yoshi.  Instead  of  the  Ear-tomb,  and  the  scooping  of  Corea 
clean  of  her  artists,  artisans,  potters,  and  art  treasures,  there  rise 
to-day  the  school,  the  hospital,  and  the  temples  of  justice  and  fi- 
nance. Plans  are  being  perfected  for  the  development  of  the  soil 
and  of  the  wealth  of  the  nation,  in  the  interest  of  the  people,  while 
to  the  missionary  and  alien  philanthropist  is  given  all  encourage- 
ment. A new  land  survey  is  in  operation  for  the  equalization  of 
taxes.  Light-houses  have  reduced  the  dangers  of  a foggy  and 
treacherous  coast.  Harbor  works  are  in  course  of  construction; 
well-made  common  roads  are  decreasing  the  difficulty  of  transport; 
while  these  and  the  highways  of  steel  continually  increase  the  value 
of  the  arable  lands  and  of  town  lots.  Rivers,  even  the  wide  Yalu 
and  Han,  are  spanned  by  bridges.  Many  a place,  historic  because 
of  war,  is  now  famous  for  its  commercial  and  industrial  devel- 
opment. Piracy  gives  way  before  policemen  in  steam  launches, 
and  chronic  brigandage  is  dying  out.  In  all  that  relates  directly 
to  humanity,  the  reform  of  the  judiciary  methods  of  justice,  prison 
procedure,  the  codification  of  laws,  etc.,  the  progress  is  marvellous. 
At  the  head  of  the  judicial  department  is  a Christian,  Judge  Wata- 


cho-sen:  a province  of  japan. 


519 


nabe,  and  many  men  of  this  faith,  Japanese  and  Corean,  fill  other 
high  offices.  Special  schools,  of  medicine,  surgery,  nursing,  scien- 
tific agriculture,  forestry,  live-stock  improvement  and  manual 
training,  are  preparing  young  men  and  women  to  raise  the  standard 
of  human  life  in  Cho-sen  and  to  reclaim  the  sixty-six  per  cent,  of 
the  arable  land  in  the  peninsula  which  has  lain  waste. 

The  absorption  of  Corea  by  Japan  has  given  the  astonishingly 
successful  Christian  missionary  work  a new  environment,  and  one 
for  the  better,  despite  the  manifest  dangers  of  misunderstanding 
arising  temporarily  from  the  political  situation  and  the  eager  read- 
iness of  a few  Japanese  press  correspondents  to  misrepresent. 
With  full  religious  liberty,  and  under  the  protection  of  a firm, 
orderly,  and  impartial  government,  the  great  work  of  raising  up 
the  new  type  of  man  and  woman  in  Cho-sen,  now  one  of  the  most 
promising  of  mission  fields,  proceeds.  In  the  Christian  household, 
numbering  roughly  about  200,000,  we  discern  the  best  promise  for 
Cho-sen’s  future.  Into  his  new  world  of  hope  and  cheer,  the 
native,  when  enlightened  and  converted,  brings  the  richest  inheri- 
tances of  the  national  culture,  the  best  results  of  his  training,  and 
the  most  winning  traits  of  his  character.  This  is  strikingly  shown 
in  the  general  eagerness  to  read  and  study  the  Holy  Scriptures,  in 
the  wonderful  powers  of  memory,  and  in  the  committing  of  large 
portions  of  the  Bible,  which  is  now  accessible  in  the  vernacular. 
The  native’s  generosity,  good-nature,  power  of  self-support,  mutual 
desire  and  practice  of  helpfulness,  patience,  and  power  to  endure 
persecution  of  any  and  all  sorts  fit  him  admirably  for  Christian 
service. 

Christianity  has  come  to  Corea  to  reveal  the  national  treasures 
that  are  enduring.  For  centuries  the  beautiful  phonetic  alphabet, 
en-mun,  and  syllabary  Nido  (p.  47),  lay  neglected  and  scorned  by 
the  learned.  Yet  this  was  but  one  of  many  elements  of  potency 
for  good  that  lay  unused  like  barren  rocks.  At  the  smiting  of  the 
missionaries’  hand  of  faith  gushed  forth  the  waters  of  life  and  heal- 
ing. The  new  messages  of  hope  and  salvation  came  to  the  people 
not  only  in  their  own  tongue,  but  in  their  own  script.  Christian 
teachers,  after  long  years  of  discouragement,  have  made,  through 
the  patience  of  hope,  of  love  and  sympathy,  a real  conquest  of  the 
Corean  heart.  The  faces  of  men  and  women  are  lighted  up  with 


520 


COREA. 


a new  glow  of  interest  in  life  here  and  hereafter  as  they  find  both 
body  and  soul  ministered  to  by  their  friends  from  afar.  With  this 
spiritual  invitation  and  challenge  to  enter  into  the  promised  land 
fully  accepted  by  the  Coreans,  it  is  not  too  wild  a dream  to  imagine 
even  the  strong  conqueror  conquered  by  the  weaker.  Samson’s 
experience  and  his  riddle  may  be  the  Corean’s.  Cho-sen  may  yet 
be  to  Nippon  what  Palestine  was  to  Greece  and  Rome.  Bereft  of 
political  sovereignty,  from  the  land  of  the  Hebrews  went  forth  that 
salvation  which  “is  of  the  Jews  ” to  conquer  Europe  and  the  world. 
Already,  by  closer  contact  of  the  humbler  classes  of  the  two  nations 
on  Corean  soil,  the  paganism  of  rustic  Japan — hitherto  almost  un- 
touched by  the  gospel — begins  to  disintegrate  and  ferment  because 
of  the  leaven  brought  from  Christian  Cho-sen.  This  has  the  Corean 
left — and  perhaps  more  abundantly  than  ever  before — “power  to 
become”  the  spiritual  regenerator  of  Japan. 


INDEX 


Aborigines,  11,  34 
Adams,  Arthur,  4 
Adams,  Will,  168, 

Adoption,  259,  260 
Agriculture,  198,  2y8,  443-447 
Ai-chiu,  8,  180,  348,  364,  365.  See 
Wiju. 

Allen,  Horace  N.,  468,  470,  490 
Alligators,  198 
Alphabets,  38,  47,  67 
Amana,  31 

American  Relations  with  Corea,  388- 
419,  428,  429,  431,  434,  435, 
459-462 

Americans  in  Seoul,  461 
An-am,  117 

Ancestor- worship,  78,  328,  351 
Ancestral  tablets,  78,  351 
Angell,  Hon.  J.  B.,  430 
Arabs  in  Corea,  1,  2,  48,  69 
Archery,  151,  293,  164 
Archipelago  of  Corea,  4 
Architecture,  135,  136,  262 
Area  of  Corea,  3,  447 
Armor,  58,  101,  102,  125,  153 
Arms,  58,  101,  102,  140.  See  Sword. 
Art,  1,  33,  48,  220,  331,  264,  300-304, 
330 

Asiatic  Society,  460,  461 
Ashikaga,  85,  86,  127,  330 
Arthur,  President,  460 
Aston,  Mr.  W.  14.,  338,  460,  464 
Austin,  Don.  See  Konishi. 

Baiji.  See  Hiaksai. 

Barbara  Taylor,  The,  424 
Bears,  294 
Beds,  263 

Belcher,  Captain  Edward,  366 
Bellonet,  Mons.,  377,  386 
Bernadou,  J.  G.,  460,  467 
Berneaux,  Bishop,  372-373 
Bianca  Portia,  The,  428 
Bingham,  Hon.  J.,  430 


Birds,  7,  195 

Blake,  Com.  Homer  C.,  409,  412 
Boats,  75,  195,  365,  368 
Bombs,  112,  372 
Books,  67,  220,  491 
Border  Gate,  83,  158,  180,  364 
Boxers,  474,  489,  490 
Bridges,  258,  285,  486 
Broughton,  Captain,  203,  214 
Brown,  McLeavy,  470,  487 
Buddhism,  35,  39,  66.  67,  80,  81,  96, 
154,  330-334,  337-338,  473 
Buddhist  priests,  36,  65,  332-333, 
485 

Budget,  454 
Burial,  278-279 

Cabinet,  480,  484 

Calendar,  489 

Card  playing,  295,  369 

Caricatures,  228-229 

Cattle,  7,  198,  201,  354,  364 

Ceramic  art,  149,  200,  264 

Cespedes,  121-124 

Chamberlain,  Mr.  Basil  Hall,  59 

Chemulpo,  429,  439,  467,  476,  495 

China,  The,  396-402 

Chin-chiu,  124,  125 

Chinese  in  Corea,  462-468,  475-478 

Chin  Ikei,  109,  118,  124,  128 

Chinnampo,  455 

Chino- Japanese  war,  471-478 

Civilization,  447,  451,  452 

Cholera,  309 

Choi,  473,  474 

Chosan  harbor,  203 

Christianity,  Roman,  93,  121-123. 

124-128,  347-376,  413,  442,  469 
Christianity,  Reformed,  450,  451, 
457,  468,  491,  492 
Chulla-do,  197-201 
Church  and  State,  472 
Chrysanthemum,  298 
Cleveland,  President,  470 

521 


522 


INDEX. 


Climate,  5,  6,  172 
Clocks,  136,  344 
Coins,  10,  18,  34,  69,  425,  479 
Comets,  173,  175 
Compass.  See  Magnetic  Needle. 
Confucianism,  80,  81,  327-330,  344, 
347,  473 

Corea  a Japanese  Protectorate,  497- 
506 

Corea  and  Japan,  476,  489,  495 
Corea-Manchurian  frontier,  156,  157, 
494 

Coreans  in  China,  44,  48,  160,  432 
Coreans  in  Japan,  38,  39,  60,  61,  423, 
427,  432,  459 

Coreans  in  Russia,  212-213,  220 

Coria,  85 

Cossacks,  494 

Costume,  81,  273-276 

Cotton,  153,  444,  456 

Coup  d'  Hat,  463-468 

Cowan,  Dr.  Frank,  427 

Coxingo,  162 

Cremation,  278 

Currency,  454 

Dagelet  Island,  110,  206 

Dalny,  496 

Dan  Kun,  12,  308 

Decorations,  453,  454 

Diet,  267,  268 

Dinners,  268,  464 

Dogs,  52,  54,  267,  304,  468 

Dragon,  301,  302 

Don  Austin.  See  Konishi. 

Dutch.  See  Hollanders. 

Ear-monument,  133,  144 
Education,  337-344,  444,  445,  479 
Edwards,  Rev.  Jonathan,  388 
Embassies  from  Japan,  1,  58,  89-93 
Embassies  to  Japan,  60,  82,  85,  92, 
126,  149,  423,  427,  432 
Embassy  to  United  States,  459,  460 
Emigration,  491 
Emperor  of  Corea,  487 
Empire  of  Corea,  479,  487,  495 
Etas,  61,  118,  334 
Ethics,  329,  360,  376 
Examinations  for  Civil  Service,  339, 
341-343 

Fairs,  166,  181,  215,  364-365 

Falcons,  76,  323 

Fans,  275,  298 

Famine,  58,  118 

Farmers,  443-447 

Fauna,  7,  195,  197,  198,  206 


Feng-shuey.  See  Pung-sui. 

Feng- Wang  Chang,  180,  496 

Feron,  the  priest,  370,  376 

Festivals,  295-299 

Feudalism,  22,  23,  41,  43,  237-241 

Fire-arms,  84,  93,  102,  112 

Fire-signals,  74,  185,  350,  369 

Fish,  215,  257,  207,  270 

Flags,  320,  332,  368 

Flora,  195,  381 

Flying  Fish,  H.B.M.S.,  440 

Folk-lore,  281-283,  308-316 

Food,  267-271,  448 

Foote,  Lucius  H.,  459,  460,  464 

Foulke,  Ensign,  460,  462,  463 

France,  363-364,  368,  426,  43b 

Franciscans,  72 

French,  165,  361-386,  469 

Frois,  Louis,  95 

Frontiers,  82,  383,  421,  494,  496 

Froez.  See  Frois. 

Fuku-Shin,  37 

Funerals,  278,  373 

Fusan,  8,  85,  100,  149,  150,  164,  202. 

203,  354,  371,  425-426 
Fusan-Seoul  railway,  449,  496 
Fuyu  people,  19,  21-24,  29 

Gambling,  295 

Genghis  Khan,  71.  See  Yoshitsuni, 
General  Sherman,  The,  183,  380 
Gensan,  214,  426,  427 
Germans  in  Corea,  461 
Gillie,  Rev.,  391 
Ginger,  2,  267 

Ginseng,  2,  163,  388,  389,  461 

Glass,  265,  391,  426 

Gold,  2,  182,  289,  388,  425,  427 

Grave  fights,  446 

Guilds,  463 

Gutzlaff,  194,  359 

Hachiman,  133 

Hair-dressing,  159,  160,  270-271 
Haimi,  375 

Hall,  Captain  Basil,  186,  197 
Hamel,  Hendrik,  169-176,  460 
Hanabusa,  429,  438-440 
Han  dynasty,  16,  19 
Han  River,  187,  188,  367,  378,  38a 
476,  486 

Han  Yang.  See  Seoul. 

Hats,  271,  272 
Hayes,  Mr.  A.  A.,  Jr.,  402 
Head-dresses,  159,  273 
Hiaksai,  26,  35-39 
Hideyori,  125 


INDEX. 


523 


Hid£yoshi,  87,  88-94,  96,  98,  144 
Hoang-hai.  Sec  Whang-hai. 
Hollanders,  157,  102,  107-176,  400 
HomiO,  38 

Horses,  7,  198,  201,  332,  385 
Hosho,  36,  37 
Hoskyn,  Captain,  440 
Hospitality,  288,  368,  391,  405 
Houses,  31,  33,  202,  205,  282,  355 
Housekeeping,  262-270 
Hulbert,  Homer  B.,  408 
Human  sacrifices,  82 
Hunters,  294,  323 

Ice,  6,  268 

Ignatieff,  General,  370,  371 
Iki  Island,  72 
Imbert,  Bishop,  362 
Imperialism,  487,  489 
In-chiun,  429,  431,  434,  436,  439 
Independence  Arch,  486 
Independence  Club,  486 
Inouve  Bunda  (Count),  422,  423, 
479-481 
Ireland,  9 
Iron,  218,  380 

Islands,  191,  197,  200,  201,  203 
Italians,  428 
Ito,  Marquis,  467,  478 
Iyeyasu,  146,  148 

Japanese,  24,  75,  163,  496 
Japanese  in  Corea,  444,  449,  493 
Japanese  pirates,  74,  84,  91,  92 
Jesuits,  162,  165,  376,  401 
Jingu  Kogo,  45,  54,  89 
Jinsen.  See  In-chiun  and  chemulpo. 
Julla-do.  See  Chulla-do. 

Kaichow,  65 
Kang-hoa.  See  Kang-wa. 

Kang-wa  Island,  72,  191,  372,  381, 
410,  423 

Kaokuli.  See  Kokorai. 

Karakuni,  59 
Kasiwade,  58,  59 

Kato  Kiyomasa,  96,  97,  103,  105, 
110,  113,  114 
Khordadbeh,  2 
Khublai  Khan,  73 
Kija.  See  Ki  Tsze. 

Kim  clan,  458 

Kim  Ok  Kiun,  464-466,  475 

King-ki-tao.  See  Seoul. 

Kioto,  92,  330 
Kirin,  303 

Kishi.  See  Ki  Tsze. 


Kitans,  67,  68 

Ki  Tsze  (Kija),  11,  12-15,  76,  362, 
488 

Kiushiu,  57,  406 
Klaproth,  458 
Kokorai,  23-26,  56 
Kokun  Island,  368,  369 
Kokwa.  See  Kang-wa. 

Kondera.  See  Kuroda. 

Konishi  Yukinaga,  96,  97,  102,  103, 
105,  109,  111,  112,  119,  127,  146 
Korai,  19,  26-29,  34,  65-69,  76,  429 
Korea  Review,  491 
Korean  Asiatic  Society,  460,  461, 
491 

Kow  Shing,  476 
Kudara.  See  Hiaksai. 

Kung,  Prince,  377 
Kunsan,  455 
Kurino,  Mr.,  494 
Kuroda,  97,  106 
Kuroda  Kiyotaku,  422 
Kuroki,  494 
Kuropatkin,  496 

Lake  Baikal,  65,  67 
Lake  Hanka,  65 
Lamsdorf,  Count,  494 
Land,  444-448 
Land  owners,  444 
Language,  51,  123 
La  Perouse,  174,  350 
Lazareff,  Port,  214,  428 
Liao  Tung,  42,  74,  180.  See  Shing - 
king. 

Liao  Yang,  496 
Liquors,  266,  463 

Literary  examinations,  81,  339,  341- 
343 

Literary  style,  34 
Li  Hung  Chang,  182,  421,  430,  441, 
467,  471 

Li-yu-son,  111,  117,  156 
Loo  Choo.  See  Riu  Kiu. 
Looking-glass,  story  of  a,  315 
Lotus,  136,  331 

Low,  F.  F.,  Minister,  403-405,  408 
Lowell,  Percival,  460 

Magnetic  needle,  69,  84 
Ma-han,  31,  32 
Manchius,  154-160,  367,  421 
Manchuria,  8,  83,  371,  494-496.  See 
Shing  King. 

Manchusri,  154 
McCartee,  Dr.  D.  B.,  338 
McCaslin,  Captain,  391 


524 


INDEX. 


McKee,  Lieutenant,  416,  418 
McKinley.  President,  453 
Maps,  162,  165,  367 
Meals,  264 

Military  character,  42,  43,  325,  416 
Mile-stones,  285 
Min  clan,  459 

Min  Yong  Ik,  460,  463,  465-468,  470 
Ming  dynasty,  77,  78,  81,  83,  85,  156 
Minra,  481,  482 
Mokpo,  455 

Mollendorf,  Herr  von,  467,  470 
Monasteries,  333,  384 
Mongols,  70-75 
Mongolia,  8 

Monocacy,  U.  S.  S.,  406-409,  412- 
414,*  459,  460 
Monuments,  160,  279,  437 
Mori  Arinori,  422 
Mountains,  5,  189,  203,  206 
Mourning,  277-282 
Music,  292,  293,  424 
Musselmans.  See  Arabs. 


Nagasaki,  123,  149,  150,  162,  175, 
205,  370,  398,  408,  440 
Nai-po,  193,  349,  352,  375 
Nak-tong  River,  5,  164,  202,  203 
Names,  165,  261,  348 
Nanking,  40,  48,  69 
Nan-on,  130-133 
National  anthem,  490 
National  emblems,  452 
National  flower,  452 
Nature,  207,  340,  378 
Naval  battles,  108,  129,  130,  134 
Neutral  strip,  7,  8,  84,  156,  182,  421, 
494 

Newspapers,  486 

New  Year’s  Day,  1,  111,  297,  461 
Nido  syllabary,  47,  67 
Niijun.  See  Ninchi. 

Ninchi,  68 
Ningpo,  69,  84 
Nin-sen.  Sec  In-chiun. 

Nippon  Machi,  164 

Ni  Taijo,  76,  78,  79 

Nose,  the  history  of  a,  311 

Noses,  171,  317 

Nuns,  59,  335 

Nye,  Hon.  Gideon,  389 

Ogawuchi,  133,  139-144 
Ojin,  55 

Oppert,  Ernest,  375,  392 
Ouen-san.  See  Gensan. 


Pagodas,  32,  383 
Pak  Yong  Hio,  464,  481 
Palladius,  68,  83,  237 
Paper,  153,  263,  265 
Parkes,  Sir  Harry,  435,  461 
Patriotism,  451,  479 
Pears,  32,  268 
Peasantry,  447 
Persecuting  nations,  472 
Petitions  to  the  king,  82,  222,  431, 
474 

Petsi.  See  Hiaksai. 

Pheasants,  32,  60 
Philosophy,  472,  473 
Phoenix,  304 

Phonetic  writing,  38,  47,  48 
Ping-an  city,  21,  65,  105,  106,  109, 
112,  182,  183,  392-395,  477,  478 
Ping-an  Province,  179-183 
Pipes,  253,  369 
Poetry,  59,  297,  344 
Political  parties,  224-229,  356,  362, 
429 

Polo,  Marco,  72,  73 
Polo,  game  of,  427 
Population,  281,  448 
Porcelain,  2,  264 
Port  Arthur,  478,  495,  496 
Port  Hamilton,  469 
Port  Lazareff,  214 
Portuguese,  2,  84,  354 
Postal  Service,  452 
Potters,  146,  174,  359 
Pratt,  Hon.  Zadoc,  390 
Prefectures,  480 
Primogeniture,  260 
Prince  Jerome  Gulf,  194,  398 
Printing,  67,  369 
Proverbs,  317-319 
Provinces,  80,  179-217 
Puhai,  64,  65 
Pung-sui,  278,  279,  328 

Queen  Min,  421, 438,  480-482 
Quelpart,  4,  200,  370,  428 

Railways,  448,  486,  496 
Rain,  306,  359,  437,  439 
Religion,  326-335 
Revenge,  227 
Revenue,  454 
Rice,  268,  298,  437,  444 
Riots,  438,  467 
Richthofen,  2 

Ridel,  Bishop,  372,  375,  378,  413 
Rin  Yin  River,  104,  105,  190 
Ri  Seiki.  See  Ni  Taijo. 


INDEX. 


525 


Eiu  Kiu,  91,  146,  426 
Roads,  202,  284,  413 
Rodgers,  Admiral  John,  13,  403-406, 
408,  418 
Rona,  The,  375 
Ross,  Rev.  John,  22 
Roze,  Admiral,  376-386 
Roze  Island,  379,  439 
Russians,  162,  163,  205,  210,  371, 
428,  469,  484,  487,  488,  492, 
494-496 

Sacrifices,  329,  454 
Saghalin,  492 
Saigo,  420,  425 
Sam-han,  30,  34,  487 
Sanskrit,  334 
Sargent,  Senator,  428 
Saris,  147 
Satehiko,  59 
Schall,  Adam,  160 
Schools,  343 
Seal  of  state,  218,  373 
Seoul,  79,  85,  104,  115,  158,  163,  164, 
189-190,  220,  223,  341,  436-441, 
485,  486 

Seoul-Fusan  railway,  449,  496 

Serfdom,  23,  237-243 

Serpents,  305 

Shamanism,  326 

Shang-chiu,  102,  164,  203 

Shang-ti,  327 

Shangtung,  2,  3,  74 

Shan-van  mountains,  213 

Shaw,  Captain  Samuel,  389 

Shimonoseki,  53,  420,  440,  478 

Shing-king,  3,  180,  353,  361,  364,421 

Shin-han,  32,  33 

Shinra,  33,  45-49,  135 

Shoes,  276 

Shufeldt,  Com.  R.  W.,  186,  428,  435, 
459 

Singing-girls,  90,  291 
Sinlo.  See  Shinra. 

Slavery.  See  Serfdom. 

Snow,  6,  207,  324 

Songchin,  455,  456 

Sorceresses,  445,  446,  462 

Sorio.  See  Nippon  Machi  and  Fusan. 

Spear,  Rev.  Wm.,  389 

Spelling,  338 

Spies,  122 

Spirits  of  the  air,  327 
Stockbridge,  388 
Straits  of  Corea,  174,  494 
Straw  men,  383 
Students  sent  abroad,  459 


Succession  to  throne,  223 

Sungari  River,  20,  371 

Sunto,  66,  77.  See  Kai-seng. 

Superstitions,  445,  470 

Surprise,  The,  391 

Susanoo,  51 

Suvematz,  Mr.  K.,  71 

Swords,  116,  149,  382 

Syllabary,  67,  338.  See  Alphabet. 

Tablets,  460,  489 

Tai-in,  or  Tai-on  Kun.  See  Tai-wen 
Kun. 

Taiko  Sama.  See  Eidcyoshi. 
Tai-wen  Kun,  230,  373,  380,  420,  437, 
458,  459,  467,  476,  482 
Tang  Dynasty,  36,  37,  47 
Taxation,  447 
Tea,  267,  389 
Telegraphs,  461 
Temples,  331,  334,  336,  485 
Theatre,  291 
“The”  Corea,  3 
Thibet,  2,  318 
Thomas,  Rev.,  391 
Throne,  52,  219 
Timber  concession,  490,  494 
Tien-tsin  massacre,  386,  418 
Tigers,  59,  135,  301,  320-325,  455 
Tobacco,  151,  152,  366 
Togo,  Admiral,  476,  495 
Tokio,  420,  424,  427,  440,  461 
Tombs,  279,  297,  392,  396,  399 
Tong-haks,  445,  473-475,  480 
Tong  Nai,  100,  203,  371,  428 
Torai  fu.  See  Tong  Nai. 

Tortoise,  218,  303 
Torture,  234,  352,  375 
Translations  into  Corean,  349,  430 
Tribute,  58,  159,  160 
Tsuruga,  53,  54 

Tsushima,  85,  86,  150,  151,  164,  205 
492 

Tycoon,  149,  380 
Types,  67,  434 

Unmun,  67 
Unyo  Kuan,  422 
Uru-san,  137-144 

Varnish,  189 

Vettor  Pisani,  The,  428 

Village  idols,  285 

Vincent,  122,  123 

Vladivostok,  495 

Von  Brandt,  Minister,  405 

Von  Siebold,  150 


526 


INDEX. 


Wall  of  stakes,  84,  182 
Wang-ken,  65 
Weigatz,  85 
Wei-man,  16 
Whales,  215,  488 
Whang-hai,  183-187 
Whang-ti,  41,  92,  159,  423 
Wiju,  491,  495 

Williams,  Hon.  S.  Wells,  394,  403, 
Wishes,  the  three,  310 
Wood-cutters,  180,  494 


Xavier,  60 

Yalu  River,  179,  485,  495 
Yangban,  443,  450 
Yasuhiro,  89,  90 
Yedo,  151,  See  Tokio. 

Yongampo,  455,  490 
YoshitsunS,  71,  164 
Yuan  Shi  Kai,  461,  465-468,  469, 
470,  471,  475 
Yule,  Colonel  H.,  72 


DATE  DUE 


1 

GAYLORD 

PRINTED  IN  U S A. 

